Methods and compositions for the treatment of neurological diseases and syndromes of aging

ABSTRACT

Disclosed are methods for the removal of plaques containing amyloid beta, protecting the brain from amyloid beta toxicity, and restoring neurological function by the expansion of neural stem cell pools and improving mitochondrial health.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application is a continuation-in-part of co-pending applicationSer. No. 16/540,200 filed 14 Aug. 2019 and which claimed benefit ofprovisional Application No. 62/719,637 filed on 18 Aug. 2018, and is acontinuation-in-part of co-pending application Ser. No. 17/176,305,filed on Feb. 16, 2021, with the contents of each of the above-listedapplications hereby incorporated by reference in their entireties, andwhich are not considered to be prior art with respect to the presentinvention.

The claimed compositions and methods primarily relate to the removal ofamyloid beta, protecting the brain from amyloid beta toxicity, andrestoring neurological function by the expansion of neural stem cellpools and improving mitochondrial health.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

Numerous putative sources of aging are known. These include mutations ofnuclear and mitochondrial DNA, inflammation, glycative cross-linking,the intra and extra cellular accumulation of indigestible materials suchas lipofuscin, Aβ and P-tau in the brain and the associated decline inmemory, Parkinson's disease and other neurological disorders,musculoskeletal disorders, and the oxidized cholesterol derivatives inatherosclerotic plaques. These contribute to the aging of the entireorganism or substantial parts thereof, and many believe that so manydisparate sources of aging interact that aging is inevitable.

The shortening of telomeres is often considered another source of aging,but herein is considered to be a calendar or clock that providescellular expiration dates for an organism that is constantly renewingitself. Without stem cells to replace somatic cells reaching theirexpiration dates, the organism would enter a Hayflick crisis and die.The Hayflick limit is the number of times somatic cells can dividebefore reaching senescence, typically 40 to 70 divisions. As this limitis due to the shortening of telomeres, one currently popular solution tothe problem is to extend telomeres with supplements such as astragalusextracts containing cycloastragenol. While this may provide short-termhealth benefits by delaying the Hayflick crisis, it allows cells tocontinue aging epigenetically, thus becoming ever more dysfunctional.

Epigenetics is the study of the meta programing that controls theexpression of genes, wherein hundreds of human cell types are programedfrom selected portions of the underlying nuclear DNA (nDNA) that isotherwise identical for all diploid cells. Nuclear DNA is bound toproteins called histones, and the expression of genes is raised orlowered by histone modifications and nDNA methylation. Histones areprimarily modified by methylation, but also by phosphorylation,acetylation, ubiquitylation, and sumoylation. At least eleven types ofmodifications are presently known. These modifications form theepigenome—the epigenetic code that lies above the nDNA code andmodulates its expression. Errors in the epigenome—epimutations thatoccur far more frequently than mutations in the underlying nDNA itcontrols—degrade the proper functioning of cells and result in aging. Inaddition, somatic cells become senescent (suffering irreversible cellcycle arrest) due to telomeric shortening, nDNA mutations and otherdamage. Even a small percentage of senescent cells are known to have anoutsized negative effect on the organism. They create inflammation andcan drive neighboring cells into senescence with chemical signals,referred to as the senescence-associated secretory phenotype (SASP).While the body removes senescent cells naturally by apoptosis, with agethe number of cells reaching senescence steadily increases while stemcell pools decline and the natural processes of clearance andreplacement fail to keep up, beginning a vicious cycle whereinepigenetically old senescent cells accumulate at an accelerating rate.

Epimutations also occur in the nDNA of stem cells, and are propagatedthereby to their progeny by methyltransferases. And just as nDNA picksup aberrant methylation marks, so does mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA). Thesemarks are similarly transferred by methyltransferase and thus arepersistent. They may be inherited or added stochastically, or byenvironmental conditions such as air quality and nutrition. In 2017,Saini, et al. reported that DNA Methyltransferasel (DNMT1) isoform3methylates the mitochondrial genome. Ultimately mtDNA can becomehypermethylated and dysfunctional, with reduced ATP production.

Methods and supplements for reducing mtDNA methylation would thusincrease ATP and athletic performance, improve organ health, and reducethe severity of many diseases of aging.

The least methylated nDNA are found in stem cells. The human organismhas stem cells of several types, with variable potential growthpossibilities. During fetal development, totipotent stem cells possessthe ability to differentiate into any cell of the body and the placenta.Those disappear after a few cycles of replication, leaving thedeveloping fetus with pluripotent (embryonic) stem cells that candevelop into any cell of the body, and finally multipotent (adult) stemcells that have more epigenetic nDNA programing than totipotent orpluripotent cells and thus a reduced ability to differentiate into anycell type. Residual pluripotent stem cells in the adult have recentlybeen discovered. All of these, along with more specialized stem cellslike satellite cells are herein collectively called stem cells (SCs)unless otherwise specified, while diploid cells with nDNA epigeneticallyprogramed to perform as any of the more than two hundred cell types inthe body are called somatic cells.

Stem cells are present in all or nearly all tissues of the matureorganism. With aging, however, the active SC populations fall even whilethe function of somatic cells is degraded by stochastic changes to theepigenome (epimutations) which occur at a rate many times the mutationrate of the underlying nDNA, thus detuning somatic cells for theirspecific function. The result is ageing and the myriad dysfunctions thatentails. History is replete with attempts to turn back aging, with theearliest written records dating back at least to the Epic of Gilgameshin 1800 BC, wherein the apocryphal Gilgamesh finds and loses a plantthat is said to restore youth. While no single substance is known thatcan reverse the biological clock, the present application disclosesmethods and antiaging compositions for doing just that.

According to a current hypothesis, damage to the epigenetic code is themain cause of aging. Methyl groups define most of the epigeneticpattern, and mutations to this pattern occur relentlessly throughoutlife due to various environmental conditions and during mitosis. Duringreplication of nuclear DNA (nDNA), the positions of methyl groups aretransferred from the parent nDNA strand to the daughter strand bymethyltransferases, which operate with relatively poor fidelity comparedto the nDNA polymerases that replicates the underlying pattern of nDNAbases. Methylation errors result in an inappropriate genetic expressionfor a given cell type, thereby detuning cells for their assigned purposeand propagating this dysregulation to daughter cells, with the level ofdysregulation increasing with each generation.

While the epimutations of most genes are stochastic, some portions ofthe epigenome have been found that degrade with such regularity thatthey can serve as an epigenetic clock. Selected methylation sites havebeen found where the aggregate methylation status correlates well withchronological age. Horvath's clock is one example, which uses severalhundred sites. Weidner's clock is another that samples just 3 sites. Theage obtained from such clocks reflects only an average age of cells fromthe body or selected tissues thereof, which generally comprises a mix ofepigenetically old and young cells. During differentiation, stem cellstake on an epigenetic pattern appropriate to a specific cell type withnear zero age. Fetal somatic cells have a low epigenetic age thatincreases rapidly through childhood and then at a slower and generallylinear fashion until death. Reversing the epigenetic age of an organismis thus a goal that many seek.

Pluripotent (embryonic) stem cells have recently been found to stillexist in the adult. Such cells exist in bone marrow and may supply othertissues via blood circulation. In 2014, Grymula et al. reported thatbone marrow provided a source of very small embryonic-like stem cells(VSELs), which can mobilize and circulate with blood. They proposed thatthese VSELs serve as a reserve of immortal pluripotent stem cells thatcan give rise to adult stem cells, thus refilling adult stem cell pools.VSELs apparently escaped discovery due to their exceedingly small sizeand failure of techniques then in use to properly extract them.

Declining numbers of VSELs are associated with aging. In U.S. PatentApplication No. 20190093075, Ratajczak et al. claimed a method ofexpanding VSELs ex vivo, but a simple method of expanding VSELs andother SCs in vivo would be far more desirable.

Stem cells secrete extracellular vesicles that create an environmentallowing endogenous stem and progenitor cells to successfully repairdamaged tissues, thus expanding stem cell pools would have more than onemode of action in restoring health. This active area of research wasreviewed by Borger et al. in 2017.

Paracrine factors modulate the behavior of stem cells. In 2018, Huang etal. reported that taurine enhanced neural SC proliferation through asonic hedgehog signaling pathway, and in 2015 Cheng et al. reported thatresveratrol enhanced neural SC proliferation after injury, also througha sonic hedgehog signaling pathway.

Serotonin reuptake inhibitors are thought to lift depression byenhancing neurogenesis, as noted in 2017 by Segi-Nishida, however theeffectiveness of the SSRIs can suddenly decline in a large number ofpatients (⅓^(rd)) as noted in 2014 by Targum, suggesting SC depletion.

The replication of stem cells is orchestrated in part by theirmitochondria. Mitochondria are organelles of ancient bacterial originthat provide energy for cells by a series of oxidation-reductionreactions, degrading fatty acids, amino acids, and pyruvate (fromglucose) to produce ATP, which is then used by cells as their primaryenergy source. Mitochondria are present in all human cells except redblood cells. The numbers per cell vary according to the energy needs ofparticular cell types, but the average cell comprises a thousand ormore. The mitochondrial count is in constant flux as mitochondriacontinuously fission and fuse to form individual units or interconnectedthread-like structures within cells. Each mitochondrion typicallycontains multiple copies of bacterial style DNA loops (mtDNA) thatoperate outside the nDNA system, but with a good deal of crosstalk. Inhealthy cells, there is an equilibrium between fission and fusion thatserves to mix mitochondrial content during fusion and isolate defectivemtDNA during fission so they can be lysosomally degraded. Mitochondrialmorphology also serves as a switch for cellular processes. In 2016,Khacho et al. hypothesized that an overall fusion state biases stemcells into symmetric proliferation (self-renewal), producing twodaughter stem cells, while a fission state biases stem cells intoasymmetric differentiation where one daughter cell remains a stem celland the other becomes a somatic cell. Without intervention, it has beenestimated that more than 80% of stem cell replication is asymmetric.

In 2015, Senyilmaz et al. reported that increased stearic acid (C18:0)intake boosted mitochondrial fusion in flies. In 2017, O'Mealey et al.reported that sulforaphane caused mitochondrial hyperfusion in culturedcells. According to Edmond in 2001, common saturated and monounsaturatedfatty acids such as stearic and oleic acids do not enter the brainparenchyma, whereas polyunsaturated fatty acids such as EPA and DHA do.Stearic acid is thus blocked by the blood brain barrier (BBB), whilesulforaphane is not. In 2018, Huang et al. reported thatdihydromyricetin promotes mitochondria fusion and biogenesis, and in2019, Liu et al. reported that dihydromyricetin crosses the BBB and isgenerally eliminated from the body in about 12 hours.

In 2012, Jang et al. showed that a high ratio of oxidized to reducednicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD⁺/NADH) promotes mitochondrialfission, thus increasing NAD⁺ will raise that ratio. While themitochondria of most cells become fragmented in the presence of highNAD⁺/NADH ratio, neural cell mitochondria respond anomalously. Accordingto Klimova in August 2019, neurons have a much higher expression ofSIRT3, which when stimulated by NAD⁺ precursor NMN, reduce mitochondrialfragmentation.

In 2018, Venkei et al. noted that the mitochondria of dividing stemcells become segregated, with the most dysfunctional mitochondria goingto the somatic daughter cells where they can be removed by qualitycontrol processes. It is hypothesized herein that mitochondrial fusionprevents this segregation and thereby suppresses asymmetric replication.This would be a direct effect rather than the indirect effect ofsuppression of ROS via mitochondrial fusion postulated by Khacho et al.,who suggested that elongated mitochondria reduce ROS in neural stemcells (NSCs), thereby promoting symmetric division. In 2008, Knoblichtaught that Drosophila stem cells in contact with other stem cells in aniche primarily replicate asymmetrically. In the elderly, much of thestem cell population in a niche may be senescent or have impairedregenerative capacity, thus a method of overriding asymmetricreplication resulting from the presence of neighboring stem cells in aniche would allow the SC pool to be expanded.

Mitochondria are energy producing organelles having inner and outermembranes with numerous pores that allow metabolites and ions to pass ina controlled fashion while creating a proton gradient across the innermembrane that can be likened to a battery or capacitor that employsprotons instead of electrons. The return flow of protons across theinner membrane is used to produce adenosine triphosphate (ATP) by theprocess of oxidative phosphorylation. It is known in the art thatmitochondria of stem cells are kept quiescent by channels that allow theproton gradient to discharge without doing useful work, therebypreventing ATP production in favor of glycolysis, which is considerablyless efficient. Such channels are created by uncoupling proteins (UCP),commonly numbered UCP1, UCP2, etc., in the order of discovery. Fivehomologues are known in mammals. The mitochondria of human stem cellshave numerous channels formed of three UCP2 molecules joined around anaxis that allow a return flow of protons (H^(f)) through the innermembrane of mitochondria. This proton leakage maintains SC quiescenceand limits reactive oxygen species (ROS) production. In 2011, Zhang etal. showed that UCP2 expression was up to ten times higher in humanpluripotent stem cells than in human fibroblasts. They found that UCP2was repressed during differentiation, by unknown means.

While the exact geometry and manner of activity of UPC2 channels is notwell understood, NMR studies suggest that three molecules are joinedalong an axis to produce a passageway therebetween that divergesslightly at the distal ends.

The use of fullerenes to prolong life was the subject of U.S. PatentApplications Nos. 20140140985 and 20180271906 by Moussa et al. It wasbelieved by the inventors that C₆₀ dissolved in oil scavenged freeradicals to prolong the life of rats. This discovery resulted in severalcompanies beginning to sell this product online. And while some usersdid experience positive results, these tended to fade with time, andafter years of use, some complained that they were worse off thanbefore. It is suggested herein that stimulating stem cell mitochondriawith C₆₀ without controlling mitochondrial morphology or consideringstem cell nutrition will ultimately result in asymmetricdifferentiation, cell cycle arrest, and depletion of stem cell pools,potentially producing a decrease in human longevity rather than anincrease. Moussa's rats did not live long enough or receive enoughtreatments to experience this issue, but those versed in the artrecognize that the depletion of functional stem cells is a major sourceof human aging.

In 2020, Grohn et al. attempted to reproduce the Moussa trial in mice.It failed, as it was found that mice receiving C60 in olive oil lived nolonger than control mice. This suggests that the Moussa results were notdue to C60's antioxidant properties, and that an uncontrolled variablewas present.

U.S. Pat. No. 9,682,150 to Gitterle et al. and 10,016,509 to Elliott etal. were directed to combinations of C₆₀ with phytonutrients andantioxidants mixed into oils, but neither appreciated that fullerenescan be used to restore stem cell pools. Neither appreciated thatfullerenes could be used to reduce epigenetic age.

In 2014, Yang et al. showed that the water soluble polyhydroxylatedfullerene (fullerol) stimulated osteogenic differentiation of humanadipose-derived stem cells, while in 2016, Hao et al. found that C60stimulated brown adipose-derived stem cells. Neither appreciated themechanism or that fullerenes could be used to restore stem cell pools.

For C60 dissolved in olive oil, concentrations less than 1 mg/ml areachieved at room temperature. Much higher concentrations can be obtainedin oils and fatty acids by heating to a temperature substantially aboveroom temperature, as discussed by Cataldo in 2008.

According to theoretical work by Chistyakov et al. in 2013, C60 canabsorb protons and thus become charged.

A number of NAD⁺ supplements are discussed by Horn in U.S. PatentApplication No. 20180071273. While increasing NAD⁺ tends to increasemitochondrial fission in most cell types, according to Klimova in 2019,the NAD⁺ precursor NMN drives neural mitochondria to fusion via a SIRT3mechanism. Other SIRT3 promoters are known, such as pyrroloquinolinequinone (PQQ), methylene blue (MB), alpha lipoic acid (ALA), andTauroursodeoxycholic acid (TUDCA), all of which are known to promotemitochondrial biogenesis. In 2018, Khdour et al. disclosed a number ofMB derivatives that enhance mitochondrial biogenesis.

An interrelated source of cellular aging derives from telomeres.Telomeres shorten and otherwise degrade with age due to attack by ROSand erosion during mitosis. Stem cells produce the enzyme telomerase forrestoring telomeric length, but most somatic cells substantially lackthis enzyme and thus their ability to replicate fails as the number ofreplications reaches the Hayflick limit. At this point somatic cellscease dividing and become senescent. While the shortening of telomeresis considered a source of aging by some, it has at least two advantagesfor the adult human organism: first, it halts the proliferation of tumorcells that do not produce telomerase, and second, it halts thereplication of epigenetically old cells that would otherwise populatethe organism with cells detuned for their tasks by ever growing numbersof epimutations. Thus rescuing near-senescent cells by lengtheningtelomers can lower telomeric age while detrimentally increasingepigenetic age. It has been found during the present work that use oftelomerase supplements can increase epigenetic age rapidly, as old cellsno longer become senescent and thus continue to age epigenetically.While in the short term a user might see health benefits due to thereduced load of senescent cells, this will be a temporary improvement.

Senescent cells can be driven into apoptosis with senolytic substances.In 2017, Zhu et al. discussed a number of senolytic compounds capable ofincreasing the natural removal of senescence cells via apoptosis. Theseinclude dasatinib, quercetin, navitoclax, piperlongumine, and fisetin.

Some adult stem cells are known to require a specific group ofnutrients, but it is likely that the nutritional requirements of allstem cell pools are not yet known. In 2014, Kilberg et al. reported thatthe amino acid requirements of human embryonic cells (hESCs) in vitroincluded methionine, lysine and leucine. Absent these amino acids, hESCsentered cell arrest and ultimately progressed to apoptosis. In 2014,Shiraki et al. showed that depletion of either methionine or SAMereduces proliferation and can result in prolonged cell arrest ofpluripotent cells leading to apoptosis.

The level of methionine in the diet is associated with shortenedlifespan, and the currently popular calorie restriction diet forlongevity has been said to actually amount to methionine restriction. In2016, Lee et al. listed a number of pathways whereby methioninerestriction might extend lifespan, yet the results are inconsistent andthus unconvincing.

SC nutritional requirements have been found to vary. In 2012, Higuera etal. studied the uptake by mesenchymal stem cells of various amino acidsand found that the amounts used varied widely according toconditions—whether growing statically on plates or dynamically in abioreactor, for instance. For a dynamic culture, glutamine, leucine andisoleucine were most used.

It is known by those versed in the art that stem cells may be removedfrom an organism, stimulated in vitro, then returned to the sameorganism or to a different one—called autologous or allogeneictransplantation, respectively. Such procedures are difficult, dangerousand expensive. While appropriate in certain instances, such as when bonemarrow has been destroyed by chemotherapy, they are not appropriate forgeneral epigenetic age reversal, thus the ancient desire to turn backthe clock has remained unmet, until now.

Abbreviations

ALA Alpha lipoic acid

AKG alpha-ketoglutarate

ASRI Allosteric serotonin inhibitor

ATP Adenosine triphosphate

BBB Blood Brain Barrier

CSF Cerebrospinal fluid

DHA Docosahexaenoic acid

DHEA Dehydroepiandrosterone

DHM Dihydromyricetin

EPA Eicosapentaenoic acid

FFA Free fatty acid

GH Growth hormone

GMS Glycerol monostearate

HEPPS A Good's buffer

L-Dopa Levodopa, an amino acid

MCT Medium chain triglyceride

MB Methylene blue

M1 Mitochondrial fusion agent 1

MS1 Mitochondrial switch 1

MS2 Mitochondrial switch 2

MSC Mesenchymal-like stem cell

mtDNA Mitochondrial DNA

NAD Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide

NAM Nicotinamide

NAM+R Nicotinamide plus ribose

nDNA Nuclear DNA

NMN Nicotinamide mononucleotide

NMR Nuclear magnetic resonance

NSC Neural stem cell

PQQ Pyrroloquinoline quinone

rRNA Ribosomal RNA

ROS Reactive oxygen species

SASP Senescence-associated secretory phenotype

SC Stem cell

Shh Sonic hedgehog

SIRT3 Sirtuin-3, a NAD-dependent deacetylase

SRI Serotonin reuptake inhibitor

SSRI Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor

TAC Transit amplifying cell, a progenitor cell intermediate between SCsand somatic cells

TCA Tricyclic antidepressant

TET Ten-eleven translocation (a type of demethylation enzyme)

tRNA Transfer RNA

UCP2 Uncoupling protein 2

VSEL Very small embryonic-like stem cell

β-GPA β-Guanidinopropionic acid

ΔΨm Mitochondrial membrane potential

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

The disclosed regimes and antiaging supplements provide for expandingstem cell numbers while reducing the epigenetic age of nDNA, andreducing mtDNA dysfunction of a mammalian organism, especially an adulthuman subject, and most especially a subject of geriatric age. Inparticular, the present invention is directed to expanding stem cellnumbers in the human brain while also removing plaques containingamyloid beta, with a synergistic composition of a mitochondrial fusionagent, an SC promoter that is also an antioxidant, and a plaquedisaggregator that act in concert to remove amyloid beta whileprotecting the brain from the toxicity thereof and simulating neuralstem cells into self-renewal. The further addition of alphaketoglutarate provides yet another antioxidant and promotes demethylasewhich then further lowers epigenetic age of dividing cells. Eachcomponent thereby has multiple functions that act synergistically toreverse and/or prevent neurological decline from diseases such asAlzheimer's and Parkinson's.

In one embodiment of the invention, epigenetic age is lowered by firstrestoring stem cell (SC) pools to a more youthful condition in vivo. SCpopulations are expanded by self-renewal during which aberrantepigenetic marks are removed from DNA and associated histones, followedby in vivo replacement of senescent cells with differentiated SCs.

Stem cells are manipulated with two mitochondrial switches. The firstswitch is the modification of mitochondrial morphology to fusion, thesecond is the restoration of ATP production. Properly set, theseswitches promote self-renewal and refill stem cell niches.

Setting the first mitochondrial switch (MS1) to fusion biases SCs tosymmetric division (self-renewal). Setting the second mitochondrialswitch (MS2) by blocking UCP2 pores of SC mitochondria restores ATPproduction. Applying the first and second switches drive self-renewal.

MS1 is activated by administering therapeutically effective doses ofmitochondrial fusion promoters. Nonlimiting examples are stearic acidand/or source thereof; myricetin, dihydromyricetin and other derivativesand analogs of myricetin; sulforaphane and/or sources thereof; andmitochondrial fusion promoter M1 (1-(5-Chloro-2-hydroxyphenyl)-ethanone2-(2,4,6-trichlorophenyl)hydrazone).

MS2 is activated by administering therapeutically effective doses ofUCP2 pore blockers, thus restoring ATP production and banishingquiescence. UCP2 pore blockers include fullerenes and fullerenederivatives, and the C60 fullerene in particular. C60 is preferred as itis known to be non-toxic, and has a predilection for mitochondria.

Epigenetic age may be further lowered during self-renewal byadministering supplements to promote natural enzymes such asdemethylases and deacetylases that remove aberrant epigenetic marks fromnDNA and associated histones.

Demethylases can be promoted by oral supplementation withketoglutarates. Nonlimiting examples of compounds useful in the instantinvention include alpha-ketoglutarate, alpha-ketoglutaric acid, ammoniumalpha-ketoglutarate, arginine alpha-ketoglutarate, calciumalpha-ketoglutarate, creatine alpha-ketoglutarate, glutaminealpha-ketoglutarate, leucine alpha-ketoglutarate, lithiumalpha-ketoglutarate, magnesium alpha-ketoglutarate, ornithinealpha-ketoglutarate, potassium alpha-ketoglutarate, sodiumalpha-ketoglutarate, and taurine alpha-ketoglutarate. Demethylaseactivity depends in part on the availability of alpha-ketoglutarate,which is an intermediate in the Krebs cycle. The derivatives may be usedat dosages twice that of alpha-ketoglutarate, due to higher molecularweight and slower rates of absorption.

Administering cell nutrition during SC self-renewal or shortlythereafter has been found to be efficacious. SC nutrition during thefollowing days is also desirable. It is known that SC niches areprevented from overfilling by either terminal differentiation or cellcycle arrest, and administering the correct nutrition biases thishomeostatic process to differentiation and replacement of aged somaticcells. Fission promoters may also be used to promote senescent cellreplacement, as fission promotes both SC differentiation and senescentcell apoptosis. It is desirable to allow sufficient time betweenself-renewal (using fusion) and senescent cell apoptosis and replacement(using fission) to allow for SC maturation. One day is generallysufficient.

It is thus a principle object of some aspects of the present inventionto lower the levels of aberrant epigenetic marks on the chromosomes(nDNA plus associated histones) of an organism.

Another principle object of some aspects of the present invention is toproliferate endogenous stem cells in situ using mitochondrial switches.

Another principle object of some aspects of the present invention is toreplace epigenetically old somatic cells with epigenetically youngsomatic cells derived from stem cells in restored stem cell pools,thereby reducing the average epigenetic age of the organism.

Another object of some aspects of the present invention is to lowercellular populations of genetically and epigenetically damaged mtDNA,thereby increasing ATP production.

Another object of some aspects of the present invention is to lower theburden of plaques in the brain.

Another object of some aspects of the present invention is to stimulateproliferation of neural stem cells to improve cognitive abilities andmemory.

These together with other objects of the invention and various novelfeatures that characterize the invention are particularized in theclaims that form part of this disclosure. For a better understanding ofthe invention, its advantages and the specific objects attained by itsuses, reference should be made to the accompanying drawings anddescriptive matter in which preferred embodiments of the invention areillustrated.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

The regimes and nutritive compositions will be better understood andobjects other than those set forth above will become apparent whenconsideration is given to the following detailed descriptions thereof.Such descriptions reference the annexed drawings, wherein:

FIG. 1 is an idealized cutaway view of a typical mitochondrion in anintermediate state between fission and fusion.

FIG. 2 is an idealized cross-sectional view showing the region aroundthe mitochondrial inner membrane in more detail.

FIG. 3 is a flowchart of the inventive method showing the sequence ofmitochondrial switches and cell signaling for filling stem cell pools.

FIG. 4 is a flowchart of cell replacement showing points wherereplacement rate and methylation can be modified.

FIG. 5 is a flowchart of SC cell replacement showing points whereaberrant methylation can be reduced.

FIG. 6 is a flowchart of mitochondrial treatment showing the sequence ofsteps producing a lower average mitochondrial methylation.

FIG. 7 is a chart of the results from a two week trial of a mtDNAcleanup regime.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

It is herein argued that aging is primarily an extended Hayflick crisiswherein depleted stem cell pools are unable to replace growing numbersof cells reaching their telomeric expiration dates, resulting in theincreasing epigenetic age of somatic cells and the buildup of senescentcells. By effectively managing this Hayflick crisis, aging can bestopped and reversed. Disclosed is a method for repeatedly stimulatingthe symmetric proliferation of endogenous stem cells to refill stem cellpools, followed by stimulating the apoptosis of senescent cells, wherebyepigenetic age of the organism is reduced and a more youthful staterestored.

Preexisting endogenous stem cells are preferred over exogenous stemcells as they are completely compatible with the organism and alreadydistributed widely in tissues. However, endogenous stem cells are notpresent in sufficient numbers and/or activity to decrease epigenetic agenaturally and their numbers decline with chronological age, deficienciesaddressed by the methods and nutritive compositions disclosed herein.

Mitochondrial Fusion and Fission

Mitochondria play a central role in reversing aging. Two mitochondrialswitches are used herein to control stem cell (SC) behavior.Mitochondrial switch 1 (MS1) can be set to either fission or fusion,while mitochondrial switch 2 (MS2) can be set to on or off. In the MS2on state, SC mitochondria produce ATP, while in the MS2 off state, theyproduce none, or substantially none.

The following switch states are relevant to stem cells:

MS1 fusion MS2 on

Result: SCs divide symmetrically (proliferation)

MS1 fission MS2 on

Result: SCs divide asymmetrically (differentiation)

MS1 fission, fusion, or intermediate MS2 off

Result: SCs are quiescent

Most commonly for SCs, MS1 is intermediate and MS2 is off.

Proliferation (self-renewal) of stem cells is achieved by firstadministering a mitochondrial fusion promoter (setting MS1 to fusion),then administering an SC promoter that blocks proton channels inmitochondria created by mitochondrial uncoupling proteins (UCP2s), orotherwise increases ATP output of SC mitochondria sufficiently to banishquiescence (setting MS2 to on). Proliferation, where one SC becomes twoSC daughters, results in expansion of SC pools.

By replacing epigenetically old senescent cells with epigeneticallyyoung cells derived from enlarged SC pools, the epigenetic age of theorganism can be reduced at many times the rate of chronological aging.An initial epigenetic age reversal rate of several years per month hasbeen noted with the SC regimes herein.

Administering SC nutrition will encourage senescent cell replacement inthe presence of sufficient viable SCs, aided when MS1 is set to fission.Fission is required for senescent cell apoptosis and SC differentiation,where one SC divides into two daughter cells—one SC and the othersomatic. Senolytic agents may be used when senescent cells have becomeresistant to apoptosis.

Stem cells have functional mitochondria, but these mitochondria are keptin a quiescent state by UCP2 channels that allow the passage of protonsthrough the inner membrane without doing useful work, therebysubstantially preventing the production of ATP. While not wishing to bebound by theory, it is believed that blocking UCP2 channels will providethe necessary stimulation for ATP production to begin proliferation,switching MS2 to the on state. Nanoparticles such as fullerenes canprovide such blocking. Fullerenes are preferred due to their generallyspherical shape and uniform size, while C₆₀ is most preferred as it isthe most available, least expensive, has a known predilection formitochondria, and is known to be nontoxic. The diameter of C₆₀ moleculesat 0.7 nm is nearly a million times larger than the proton diameter, butprotons in an aqueous environment form hydronium ions (H₃O⁺), which thencluster with water molecules to form hydrated hydronium. Recent researchsuggests that the actual ion is H₁₃O₆ ⁺. In any case, such waterclusters ferrying protons have a significant size that is comparable toC₆₀ molecules. Thus when the conical topology at either distal end ofUCP2 is blocked by a C₆₀ molecule, hydrated hydronium clusters cannotdock or discharge there and the leakage of protons is halted.Mitochondria thus begin generating ATP and quiescence is banished. Withmitochondria in a fused state, stem cells are directed to symmetricproliferation and stem cell pools are enlarged.

If molecular size and physical blocking of UCP2 pores are thecontrolling factors as described, then fullerenes may have quitedifferent chemical properties and still function to stimulate stemcells.

Referring now to the drawings wherein like numerals refer to like parts,FIG. 1 shows a cutaway section of a mitochondrion generally indicated bynumeral 101 in an intermediate state between fusion and fission withbacterial-style loops of mtDNA 112, 113; cytosol 170, the jelly-likefluid in which the mitochondrion 101 is embedded; inner mitochondrialmembrane 114; viscid matrix 116 in which oxidative processes occur;cristae 119, whereby the surface area of the inner membrane isincreased; outer membrane 118; and intermembrane space 120 between innermembrane 114 and outer membrane 118.

If fissioned along axis 2-2, the mitochondrion 101 would be split intotwo generally spherical mitochondria with each portion containing oneloop of mtDNA 112, 113, whereas in a fusion state the mitochondrion 101would merge with other mitochondria along axis 1-1 and contain manyloops of mtDNA. In a state of hyperfusion, it might contain hundreds. Inthe limit, all mitochondria in a cell might be interconnected inthreadlike fashion. In that state, all enzymes would be shared.

FIG. 2 shows an enlarged cross section of mitochondrial inner membrane114, which is approximately 5 nm in wall thickness. Studded in the innermembrane 114 are enzymes ATP synthase 140, which are molecular turbinesthat channel the return flow of protons derived from hydrated hydronium132 to convert ADP mechanically and catalytically to ATP. The lower partof ATP synthase 140 extends into the matrix 116, while the upper portionis buried in the inner membrane 114 and rotates in the direction 160. Ithas been measured to spin at 130 revolutions per second (7,800 rpm). Thelower portion of ATP synthase 140 carries enzymes whereby ADP isconverted to ATP.

The inner membrane 114 is also studded with various proteins and enzymesfor oxidative processes and for pumping protons from the matrix 116 intothe intermembrane space 120. These are well known in the art and are notshown here. In stem cells the inner membrane 114 is richly studded withUCP2 channels such as 150 and 151 (the latter shown in cutaway section)that allow protons to bypass ATP synthase 140 and return to the matrix116 without creating ATP. According to the present hypothesis, moleculesof C₆₀ 122 (sans adducts), 123 (with eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) adduct113 and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) adduct 117), and 124 (with oleic acidadduct 115), can reversibly block UCP2 channels 150 and 151 to preventreturn leakage of protons derived from hydrated hydronium 130, thustemporarily boosting ATP production. UCP2 channel 150 is shown blockedby Cho molecule 122, repelling hydrated hydronium 130. While specificadducts are shown, they are not believed necessary for UCP2 blocking.

With UCP2 pores blocked, outer surface 170 of the inner membrane 114will become positively charged relative to the inner surface 172 ofinner membrane 114 as protons continue to be pumped from the matrix 116,however, whether protons approach UCP2 pore 150 along surface 170 or viahydronium ions 130, they will be physically blocked by C₆₀ 122.Additionally, fullerenes are conductive and thus C₆₀ 122 facing theintermembrane space 120 is expected to become positively charged andrepel hydronium 130 even more efficiently. As yet unblocked UCP2 pore151 allows hydrated hydronium 131 (or the proton derived therefrom) topass down channel 152 where it reappears (or is reconstituted) ashydrated hydronium 133.

With UCP2 pores substantially blocked, MS2 is switched on, the matrix116 pH rises, increasing the flow of protons through ATP synthase 140.In somatic cells with few UPC2 channels, this produces a relativelysmall boost in ATP output, but in stem cells with large numbers of UCP2channels and thus quiescent mitochondria, this produces a far moredramatic boost, stimulating them into either proliferation ordifferentiation.

While the actual manner in which UCP2 pores allow proton leakage is notwell understood, it is believed that C₆₀ shuts down this pathway, andwhether that occurs by physically and/or electrostatically blocking UCP2channels thereby preventing conduction of protons (or hydronium), orinterfering with protons derived from hydronium transferred to a UCP2channel, the end result is the same: stem cells are stimulated into anactive state in the presence of C₆₀ by preventing return bypass ofprotons through UCP2 pores to the matrix, thereby increasing ATP output.

Fullerenes dissolved in oils can be delivered orally, and when employedwith a SC regime with a fused mitochondrial morphology, Cho has beenfound efficient at reversing epigenetic age. Olive oil was preferred byMoussa et al., but many other oils may be used. Natural oils havehundreds of components, some yet unknown, and some capable of reactingwith C₆₀. Thus processed oils are preferred for consistency. Highlyrefined MCT oils, for example, can dissolve C₆₀ while producing few ifany adducts. MCT oils are medium chain triglycerides with aliphatictails of 6-12 carbon atoms, and preferably comprising primarily caproicand/or caprylic acids. MCT oils are readily available and widelyconsumed. They have lower viscosity and thus more rapidly dissolve C₆₀,and are more stable than olive oils. Solution concentrations approaching0.5 g/L are possible by grinding C₆₀ crystals to increase dissolutionrate and magnetically stirring at room temperature for a period ofapproximately 2 weeks, or until substantially dissolved. The actualperiod is sensitive to the degree of grinding of C₆₀ crystals and theirpurity. The higher the purity the more perfect the crystals, and themore refractory to dissolution. The finished product may then befiltered, but this is considered generally unnecessary. Increasing thetemperature during stirring will dramatically increase the dissolutionrate of C₆₀. Free fatty acids may also be used, such as oleic acid.Dissolving C₆₀ in free fatty acids readily creates adducts (unlike withMCT or other purified oils), and heating substantially above roomtemperature results in rapid additions of adducts and rapid dissolution,with much higher concentrations. The resulting formation of adducts hasnot been found to interfere in stimulating stem cells, though thepermeability of the blood brain barrier (BBB) may be sensitive to adducttype.

Example: A 5 mg/ml concentration of C₆₀ was prepared by stirring inoleic FFA at 75° C. for 3 hours, which is approximately five times theconcentration achievable in olive oil and ten times that in MCT oil atroom temperature. The whiskey color of the resulting mix resembled thecolor of C₆₀ often achieved in olive oil, suggestive of random oleicacid adducts in both, whereas C₆₀ dissolved by stirring in MCT oil atroom temperature for two weeks produces the classic purple color of C₆₀solutions in non-reactive solvents such as toluene, suggestive of noadducts. C₆₀ in MCT oil produces results similar in character when takenat the same dosages of C₆₀ with a mitochondrial fusion promotor and stemcell nutrition, however C₆₀ dissolved in oleic FFA with heat provideseffects subjectively stronger than C₆₀ dissolved in MCT oil for the sameC₆₀ content. This may result from more efficient transport of C₆₀ witholeic acid adducts into mitochondria.

Mitochondrial fission and fusion can be achieved with commonly availablesupplements. Of the mitochondrial fusion promoters known in the art,stearic acid and sulforaphane are preferred. Those fusion promoters mostpreferred herein comprise stearic acid precursors such as triglycerideswith at least one stearic acid moiety, stearic acid diglyceride andstearic acid monoglyceride (glycerol monostearate), and/or asulforaphane source such as sulforaphane glucosinolate, generally withan activating enzyme such as myrosinase. These may be conveniently dosedorally, with minimum effective amounts of 500 mg or more for stearicacid as a monoglyceride, and 5-500 mg or more for sulforaphane, with apreferred range of 25-200 mg. Once mitochondrial morphology proceeds tocomplete fusion (though not necessarily hyperfusion), excess stearicacid only serves to produce longer periods of fusion as it is clearedfrom the body. While stearic acid has a half-life of ten to twelvehours, the fusion state is needed only until stem cells commit tosymmetric proliferation. Sulforaphane has a half-life of about an hourand peaks in the bloodstream in as little as 15 minutes, and thus may beused simultaneously with C₆₀. Another fusion promoter that acts rapidlyis glycerol monostearate, which may be used simultaneously with a UCP2pore blocker. Given its much greater speed, the dose required is muchless, as is the residual fusion effect. Any substantially nontoxic anddigestible source of stearate may be used, though they may havedecreasing levels of bioavailability, thus requiring longer digestiontimes and/or larger doses. These comprise triglycerides with one tothree fatty acid moieties with at least one moiety being stearic acid.Commercial sources of stearic acid are generally impure. Food gradestearic acids, for instance, can comprise more palmitic acid thanstearic acid. Nevertheless, they have proven effective in the SC regimesin the amounts stated herein, based on the free fatty acid (FFA)content. Triglycerides are rendered more bioavailable by dispersing inhot foods, or in such products as cookies and brownies. (Since they meltduring baking, they can replace vegetable oil.) Metal stearate soapsappear to be less bioavailable. Sodium and potassium stearates can bedissolved in hot water, and thus could be used when dispersed in likemanner to food grade stearic acid triglycerides. Other fusion promoters(and fission inhibitors) are known and have been used to reduceischemia/reperfusion injury and could be used here. One example ismitochondrial fusion promoter M1 (1-(5-Chloro-2-hydroxyphenyl)-ethanone2-(2,4,6-trichlorophenyl)hydrazone).

The fullerene C₆₀ dissolved in triglycerides is presently sold as ahealth supplement, however such supplements do not contain sufficientstearic acid to create a state of mitochondrial fusion, and in any casethe fusion would come too late, after stem cells have committed toasymmetric replication. C₆₀ dissolved in triglycerides or FFAs has beenfound to act rapidly, producing an energy boost in thirty minutes orless when taken on an empty stomach, while triglycerides take more thanan hour to digest and absorb, thus stearic acid triglycerides arepreferably administered more than an hour before C₆₀, more preferablytwo hours, and most preferably three hours. Glyceryl monostearate (GMS)may be used simultaneously as a unitary dose as it is rapidly absorbed.

Another alternative for a unitary dose is to delay the absorption of thefullerene portion by providing a matrix or coating to slow dissolution.An enteric coating is one example, but many methods of controlling anddelaying drug delivery are well known in the art and may be used here.While this delay may be helpful, the absorption of fullerenes combinedwith oil are already delayed over water soluble substances, which isgenerally sufficient when used with GMS.

For asymmetric SC division (differentiation), or to enhance apoptosis ofsenescent cells, mitochondria are stimulated with a mitochondrialfission (fragmentation) promoter. This sets mitochondrial switch 1 (MS1)to fission. For most cell types, this can be achieved by administering aNAD⁺ promoter. Such promoters comprise nicotinic acid, nicotinamide,nicotinamide riboside (NR), nicotinamide and ribose (NAM+R), nicotinicacid and ribose, nicotinamide mononucleotide, and oxidized nicotinamideadenine dinucleotide. NAM+R is preferred for low cost, easyavailability, and low toxicity. NAM+R may be conveniently dosed orally,with minimum effective amounts ranging upward from 100 mg each fornicotinamide and ribose, and preferably half a gram of each, and morepreferably one gram of each. Five grams or more of each may be used, butis unnecessary. After mitochondrial fission proceeds to completion,excess promoters only serve to maintain fission until NAD⁺ is reduced toNADH, thus lowering the NAD⁺/NADH ratio, or fission is otherwiseoverridden by supplementation with a fusion promoter such as stearicacid.

While a high NAD⁺ NADH ratio promotes fission, stearic acid in the dosesdiscussed has been found to promote fusion more profoundly, thus thelatter overrides the former: e.g., 10 grams of food grade triglyceridecomprising approximately 50% stearic acid moieties will override 2 gramseach of nicotinamide and ribose taken some hours before, while one gramof GMS will override it for a short time.

Senescent Cells and Telomeres

Although stem cells produce telomerase, it is known that this enzyme cannevertheless fail to maintain telomere length. Some may therefore findit desirable to extend telomeres during proliferation from time to time.Telomerase stimulating supplements comprise cycloastragenol andastragalus extracts that are known to contain cycloastragenol and otherputative telomerase agonists. In the present invention, it is generallynot desirable that telomeres of somatic cells be extended, as this wouldallow epigenetic age to increase by suppressing senescence andapoptosis. Thus telomerase stimulating supplements should be usedrarely, or not at all.

Senolytic treatments reduce the population of senescent cells morerapidly than natural processes. While senescent cells aren't renderedsenescent because of their advanced epigenetic age, they are generallyamong the epigenetically oldest cells of the body. And while they arecleared naturally, this process can lag with age and with the decliningavailability of functional stem cells to replace them. Non-limitingexamples of senolytic substances include dasatinib, quercetin,navitoclax, piperlongumine, butyrate, fisetin, curcumin and curcuminanalogues. Many others are known.

It is suggested herein that clearance of senescent somatic cellsnaturally declines when new somatic cells derived from stem cells arenot available to replace them, and increases when stem cell pools arefilled and healthy, both due to paracrine signaling. Thus enhancing stemcell pools should enhance senolytic treatments, as should administeringstem cell nutrition during senolytic treatment.

It has been estimated that some 50 billion senescent cells are recycleddaily by apoptosis. Apoptosis is an orderly form of cellular suicidethat is much less toxic to the body than necrosis, though effects canstill be perceived. An effective senolytic treatment would necessarilyincrease the average rate substantially before subjective effects couldbe easily distinguished over baseline. These effects are often describedas flu-like symptoms such as muscle pains and lethargy. In fact, theinfluenza virus is known to stimulate cellular apoptosis, which isnecessary for spreading viral particles. The symptoms produced bysenolytic treatments may be reversed with stearic acid, showing thatmitochondrial fusion ends apoptosis, thus fusion promoters such asstearic acid and/or sulforaphane should prove useful in interruptingviral pathogenesis, slowing or stopping the exponential growth ofvirions as immunity is built up. Other widespread viruses that spread byapoptosis and thus might be slowed or stopped by fusion promoters areherpes simplex, HIV, and SARS-CoV-2. The Ebola virus stimulates massiveapoptosis, thus fusion promoters might be particularly helpful.

It is known in the art that apoptosis begins with mitochondrial fission,which can be achieved with NAD⁺ precursors such as NAM, NAM+R and/orapigenin (4′,5,7-trihydroxyflavone), as nonlimiting examples. A seriesof cellular enzymes (caspases) then act in a cascade, driving senescentcells into programed apoptosis.

Of particular use for removing senescent cells are nicotinamide andribose (NAM+R) to stimulate fission, along with curcumin (preferablyliposomal, phytosomal, or with other enhancement to improvebioavailability) and/or resveratrol to promote caspase activation.Curcumin and resveratrol appear to work synergistically withmitochondrial fission in removing senescent cells by apoptosis.

Enhancing Stem Cell Pool Expansion

Cell signaling modulators can increase the numbers of SCs generated andincrease their utilization. Many signaling pathways of the autocrine,paracrine and endocrine types are known. Examples of paracrine signalingpathways useful in the present invention are the Hedgehog, Wnt, FGF, andTGF-β pathways.

Three Hedgehog homologues are known: Sonic (Shh), Desert (DHH), andIndian (IHH). Shh is a morphogen and mitogen that stimulates NSCproliferation. Smoothened agonist (SAG) is an exemplary Shh agonist forNSC proliferation, as is the amino acid taurine and the dietarysupplement resveratrol. In animal studies, SAG has been used at 10mg/kg, but it is expected far less would be required for this regime.For a human subject, taurine at 5 mg/kg to 1 g/kg is considered a usefultherapeutic range, with 20-200 mg/kg preferred, and 30-60 mg/kg mostpreferred. For resveratrol, doses of 0.5-20 mg/kg are considered auseful therapeutic range, with 1-10 mg/kg preferred, and 2-5 mg/kg mostpreferred.

Turning again to the drawings, FIG. 3 shows a flowchart of the inventivemethod in which a subject has a depleted SC pool 300 before SCreplenishment, indicated by dashed box 320. SC replenishment step 320comprises steps 310, 312, 314, and 316. At step 310 (MS1), SCmitochondria are driven into fusion. At step 312, cell signaling ismodulated. This may occur before, during, or after step 310. Resveratroland taurine are examples of modulators that may be used to modulate Shhsignaling. Sirt3 promoters may also be employed as modulators. Examplesare pyrroloquinoline quinone (PQQ), methylene blue (MB), alpha lipoicacid (ALA), and Tauroursodeoxycholic acid (TUDCA). An example ofautocrine modulation is the decrease of myostatin by creatine.

At step 314, SC mitochondrial ATP output is promoted (MS2), therebybeginning proliferation. As one example, C60 may be used to block SCmitochondrial UCP2 pores, switching MS2 on. SC nutrition is provided atstep 316 to prevent cell arrest of newly created SCs. Nutrition may beprovided before, during, or after step 314, and may be repeated atintervals after step 320. These intervals may vary from an hour to 24hours, and nutrition can also be administered over subsequent days. Theneed may vary considerably depending upon the size of the stem cellpools and the demand for senescent cell replacement. The result of onecycle of SC replenishment 320 is an augmented SC pool 303. More than onecycle of step 320 is generally desirable. Once a week to once a month isa preferred schedule for maintenance.

Used herein, an SC pool generally refers to the population of SCs in themicroenvironments known as SC niches, and also to the population of SCsin general circulation, such as mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) and VSELs.

After sufficient SC treatment cycles have been achieved, SC niches maybe full, or even over filled. It is expected that homeostatic mechanismswill trim excess SC pools either by terminal differentiation or byapoptosis. It is thus economical to administer nutrition to insure theexcess is used for replacement and not wasted. Epigenetic age maycontinue to decline for days or weeks as stem cells with low epigeneticage replenish rapidly dividing transit cells (TACs), which in manyorgans do the bulk of the replicative work providing the organism withnew somatic cells. These TACs are expected to be most impacted bytelomerase promoters, and thus such promoters should be used rarely ornot at all, as they can rapidly increase average epigenetic age.

FIG. 4 is a flowchart of cell replacement showing points where SCreplacement and chromosome methylation can be modified. Cellreplenishment, indicated for a tissue by dashed box 420, ishierarchical. Circulating VSELs 410 can be employed to replace SCs 412resident in a niche, which then replace senescent TACs 414 as needed,and which finally replace somatic cells 416 as they become senescent andare removed by apoptosis 403, or shed from the body as occurs withepidermal cells and enterocytes of the epithelium. Intervention with MS1set to fusion and MS2 set to on at 422 will expand VSELs 410 and SCs412, thereby increasing the rate of replacement of senescent TACs 414due to higher availability. This will reduce the average epigenetic ageof somatic cells 416. In contrast, intervention with a telomeraseagonist 424 will slow the replacement of SCs 412, TACs 414, and somaticcells 416 by lengthening their respective telomeres and slowing orpreventing senescence. Somatic cells 416 will thus become epigeneticallyolder before apoptosis 403. Filling of SC niches lowers epigenetic agewhile lengthening telomeres increases it, thus the use of telomeraseagonists should be minimized, or not used at all. Intervention with TETenzyme promoters 430 will remove aberrant methylation of SCs 412 andTACs 414 during SC proliferation, thereby further lowering epigeneticage of the organism.

FIG. 5 is a flowchart of SC cell replacement showing points whereaberrant methylation can be reduced. An SC pool with aberrantprogramming is indicated by box 516, before SC replenishment andcleanup, indicated by dashed box 520. SC replenishment and cleanup step520 comprises steps 510, 512, 514, and 516. At step 510 (mitochondrialswitch 1), SC mitochondria are driven into fusion. At step 512,endogenous demethylase is stimulated with a promoter. This may occurbefore, during, or after step 510, and may comprise alpha-ketoglutarate(AKG) or a pharmaceutically acceptable derivative as previously noted.At step 514, MS2 is set to fusion and SCs proliferate with reducedaberrant methylation. SC nutrition step 516 comprises at leastmethionine and lysine. Step 520 may comprise a unitary dose of alladministered components, which may also include cell signalingmodulators.

The following example regimes been employed, with example doses that maybe varied in the ranges listed in the Preferred Doses section. Allamounts are for a male subject of about 80 kg:

Treatment Results

Stem Cell Trial Results

A male subject, 66 years old and in substantially good health, trialedthe stem cell regime. After 3 months (34 SC replenishment treatments andone senolytic treatment) he found that pain in both knees and jointinstability in one knee that had troubled him for years faded anddisappeared, as did a needle-like pain in one patella when kneeling. Henoted tighter and smoother skin and disappearance of all age wrinklesand most broken capillaries on his face. A skin pinch test (time torecovery after pulling up neck skin with two fingers) went from 3seconds to 1. He noted greater muscle mass, less fat, and more stamina.His formerly flat feet developed a noticeable arch. Tenosynovitis in onepalm disappeared. A distortion he had seen in the Amsler grid that hadremained stable for approximately 15 years also disappeared.

These seemingly unrelated changes are consistent with systemic stem cellactivity.

This subject had previously used C₆₀ outside of the regime and foundthat initially positive results faded after a year and subsequent use ofC₆₀ produced no effects at all apart from increased alcohol toleranceand exercise enhancement for a few hours, consistent with itsantioxidant properties and the increase of ATP production in myocytes.It is believed that this fading was due to depletion of stem cell pools,which were then refilled using the regimes of the present invention.

Test subject's epigenetic age results are summarized below in the tableof AR (Age Regression) trials:

TABLE 1 Epigenetic- Treat- Elapsed AR chronological ment time Trial age(weeks) (weeks) Comments Cocktails 0  +0.5 years 0 0 Baseline — 1 −11.2years 12 20 Mito switches SCC1 2 −13.0 years 10 95 Mito switches SCC2 3−14.6 years 8 105 Mito switches/ SCC3 resveratrol 4 −22.6 years 8 143Mito switches/AAKG SCC3 5 −28.2 years 12 213 Mito switches/AAKG SCC4

The second column of Table 1 reports the difference between epigeneticand chronological age; the third column reports the weeks of treatment,wherein there was at least one fusion cycle per week and generally twofission cycles initially, decreasing to the end of this period to onetreatment every week or two; the fourth column reports the total elapsedtime from baseline; the fifth column reports the regimes used; and thesixth column reports the nutritional cocktails.

Several companies are presently offering epigenetic tests that purportto give epigenetic age that generally closely correlates withchronological age. The subject had taken a test offered by Osiris Greentwo months prior beginning treatment. This company found that epigeneticage can be reliably measured by sampling the methylation patterns ofjust three gene markers taken from buccal cells (similar to Weidner'sclock, which uses 3 markers from blood), with an overall median absolutedeviation of 1.8 years. The reported age after the subject's baselinetrial (Trial 1) fell well within that range, with a calculatedepigenetic age 0.5 years higher than his chronological age. This was inspite of his prior use of C60 for several years outside of the regime.

A second epigenetic test after the first trial and 5 months after thebaseline trial reported an estimated age more than 11.2 years below hisfirst estimated age. This was far outside the expected range. A thirdtest after the second trial showed a decline to 13.0 years below currentage. A Sirt3 modulator (300 mg of resveratrol) was then added one hourbefore C60, and one treatment per week was performed for 8 weeks,resulting in an epigenetic age 14.6 years below his chronological age.The addition of 5 grams of AAKG to the mitochondrial switch regime for 8treatments over 8 weeks produced an overall decline from hischronological age of 22.6 years. It appears that using a demethylasepromoter during stem cell stimulation produces a far more rapid declinein epigenetic age, as removing aberrant methylation is easiest duringcell division.

Removing aberrant methylation from the rapidly dividing TACs willproduce results that will slowly fade, but removing methylation from SCswill produce the most long lasting results.

The epigenetic testing labs used—Osirus Green, TrueMe, EpiAging andEpimorphy—all used different sets of genes, yet results were within afew years for samples taken at the same time.

A separate trial using a telomere agonist (cycloasragenol) with everyC60/mitochondrial switches treatment was found to rapidly increaseepigenetic age. It was initially hypothesized that any negative impactwould be minimal if used only with mitochondrial switches, but thetelomeres of rapidly dividing TACs were likely also lengthened, and thisblocked TAC senescence and replacement. Since TACs divide frequently,they also experience rapid epigenetic aging, thus somatic cells derivedfrom TACs with telomeres extended by an agonist reach higher epigeneticage that would ordinarily be possible. Using cycloasragenol ever fourthtreatment did not show the same negative effects.

Stem Cell Nutrition

Some adult stem cells are known to require a specific group ofnutrients, but it is likely that the nutritional requirements of all SCsare not yet known. The amino acid requirements of human embryonic cells(hESCs) in vitro include methionine and lysine, in particular, and alsoleucine. Absent some or all these amino acids, SCs may undergo cellarrest and ultimately progress to apoptosis. Thus they are included forSC nutrition. To these can be added the metabolic productsS-adenosylmethionine (SAMe) derived from methionine, andβ-hydroxy-β-methylbutyrate (HMB), derived from leucine. By avoiding cellcycle arrest when suitable nutrients are administered, fewer cycles ofendogenous stem cell treatments are needed. The uptake of various aminoacids vary widely according to conditions, thus for general purposes,methionine and lysine are supplemented, optionally with leucine, andoptionally with a commercially available mix of essential amino acids.Supplementing SAMe in conjunction with fusion-biased self-renewal willfurther insure that self-renewal is achieved. Effective doses of SAMe inan adult human subject ranges from about 1 mg to about 1 g, with apreferred range of about 5 mg to about 100 mg. The proliferation of NSCsis enhanced by the amino acid taurine. Thus taurine may be used as anutritive addition, in particular when NSC pools are to be enhanced.Effective doses of taurine in an adult human subject range from about500 mg to about 50 g, with a preferred range of about 2 g to about 20 g.

Herein it is expected that the requirements of different stem cell typeswill vary, along with individual differences from one subject to thenext, as will the nutrients already available endogenously. Thus thereis likely no one best nutritional cocktail. In fact, use of amino acidsthat stimulate stem cells may be decidedly unhealthy in the long runwhen used outside the present SC regime. As discussed above, methioninedepletion can result in pluripotent SC arrest and apoptosis. And whenmethionine is readily available, it is expected that pluripotent stemcell activity will increase. But without sufficient proliferation,pluripotent SCs can become depleted over years of use. With theappropriate use of mitochondrial switches to expand reserves ofpluripotent SCs, however, it becomes unnecessary to starve oneself tolive longer.

EXAMPLES OF SC NUTRITIONAL SUPPLEMENT COCKTAILS

The following examples of antiaging cocktails of amino acids have beenemployed. All amounts are for a male subject of about 80 kg:

Example SCC1 (316)

-   -   Threonine, 3 g    -   Methionine, 2 g    -   Lysine, 2 g    -   Leucine, 2 g

Example SCC2 (316)

-   -   Threonine, 3 g    -   Methionine, 2 g    -   Lysine, 2 g    -   Leucine, 2 g    -   Tryptophan, 500 mg    -   SAMe, 100 mg

Example SCC3 (316)

-   -   Methionine, 2 g    -   Lysine, 2 g

Example SCC4 (316)

-   -   Methionine, 2 g    -   Lysine, 2 g    -   SAMe, 100 mg

In the above nutritional examples, amino acids can be administered incapsules or tablets, or by dissolving or dispersing in fruit juice orflavored water. A mix comprising at least 5% each of methionine andlysine is preferred, and at least 10% most preferred.

EXAMPLE REGIMES FOR EPIGENETIC AGE REGRESSION Example P1

SC Replenishment, as a Single Dose:

-   -   GMS, 1 g    -   C60, 3 mg in oil

Example P2

SC Replenishment, as a Single Dose:

-   -   GMS, 1 g    -   DHM, 500 mg    -   C60, 3 mg in oil

Example P3

SC Replenishment, as a Single Dose:

-   -   GMS, 1 g    -   C60, 3 mg in oil    -   Supplements of cocktail examples SCC1-4

Example P4

SC Replenishment:

-   -   Stearic acid containing triglyceride, 10 g, dispersed for oral        availability

After 3 Hours—

-   -   C60, 3 mg in oil    -   Supplements of cocktail SCC1-4

Example P5

SC Replenishment Combined with Mitochondrial Cleanup, as a Single Dose:

-   -   C60, 3 mg in oil    -   Supplements of example Mito1-2    -   Supplements of cocktail examples SCC1-4

Example P6

Senescent Cell Replacement with Mitochondrial Cleanup, as a Single Dose:

-   -   Curcumin, 2 g, liposomal    -   Supplements of example Mito1    -   Supplements of cocktail example SCC1-3

In all examples herein, a human subject of 80 kg is assumed.

Mitochondrial Age Reversal

The mtDNA of mitochondria age in parallel fashion to nDNA, withmutations of the mtDNA genome and additions of epigenetic marks thatdegrade performance. In the case of mtDNA, the marks are methyl groupsthat reduce ATP output. Most genes coding for mitochondria are locatedin the nDNA, but the 37 genes of human mtDNA code for 13 polypeptidesnecessary for the Krebs cycle. If just one mutated gene fails tofunction, then the full Krebs cycle cannot be supported by that mtDNAloop when isolated in a fissioned mitochondria. The membrane potential(ΔΨm) falls to zero, allowing such mitochondria to be labeled by thePINK1/Parkin quality control process that ultimately results indegradation in lysosomes. The efficiency of this process declines inaged cells and defective mitochondria appear that are resistant tonatural fission and thus resistant to mitophagy. Methylation of mtDNAalso increases with age. Mitochondria with single loops ofhypermethylated mtDNA that have lower but nonzero ΔΨm are protected frommitophagy. It is herein hypothesized that lower ATP (and ROS) activitypartially protects methylated mtDNA from mutations, providing a survivaladvantage over unmethylated mtDNA. With lower rates of mutation,hypermethylated mtDNA may ultimately come to dominate cellularpopulations.

In the present invention, fission is alternated with fusion to greatlymagnify the endogenous quality control process. This alone is notsufficient for a full restoration of function, however, as the membranepotential does not go to zero for isolated methylated mtDNA that areotherwise unmutated, and thus are retained and duplicated duringmitogenesis. It is suggested herein that numerous maladies of aging areat least partially due to the buildup of methylated and hypermethylatedmtDNA. These include frailty, hypertension, fatigue, immune systemdecline, and many other characteristics of aging that can be symptoms ofATP deficiency. Thus reducing the methylation of mtDNA in the elderlyand others with a deficiency should ameliorate these symptoms. As thereappears no natural quality control program analogous to PINK1/Parkin toeffectively remove mtDNA methylation, a similar cyclic method previouslyused for removing aberrant methylation from nDNA was trialed. Fissionand fusion cocktails Mito1 and Mito2 were alternated on a substantiallydaily basis. Mito1 comprised a unitary dose of a fission promoter (NAM),a biogenesis promoter (PQQ), and a demethylase promoter (AKG), whileMito2 comprised a unitary dose of a fusion promoter (GM), a biogenesispromoter (PQQ), and a demethylase promoter (AKG).

It was hypothesized that using biogenesis during fission to reducemembrane potential to zero would preferentially expose methylated mtDNAto the PINK1/Parkin QC process, marking these mitochondria formitophagy. Isolated mtDNA loops with the greatest methylation would havethe least reserves of enzymes during biogenesis and thus would be themost likely to be labeled for removal. Methylation would also be lost bythe action of demethylase enzymes during biogenesis, a point wheremethyltransferase enzymes cannot restore them.

Preferred biogenesis promoters include pyrroloquinoline quinone (PQQ),PQQ, its isomers, derivatives, and salts. Methylene blue and itsanalogues also stimulate biogenesis and cross the BBB, and are thuspreferred for treating neuronal mitochondria.

A preferred demethylase promoter is alpha-ketoglutarate (AKG).Pharmaceutically acceptable derivatives of alpha-ketoglutarate may bechosen from the nonlimiting group consisting of ammoniumalpha-ketoglutarate, arginine alpha-ketoglutarate, calciumalpha-ketoglutarate, creatine alpha-ketoglutarate, glutaminealpha-ketoglutarate, leucine alpha-ketoglutarate, lithiumalpha-ketoglutarate, magnesium alpha-ketoglutarate, potassiumalpha-ketoglutarate, sodium alpha-ketoglutarate, taurinealpha-ketoglutarate, and the like. Alpha-ketoglutarate is preferred dueto its speed of action.

A preferred fusion promoter is GMS for its speed of action. Otherstearic acid sources may be used if the biogenesis promoter is delayedrelease or taken at a later time. A nonlimiting group of stearic acidsources include food grade “stearic acid,” which is a triglyceride ofstearic and palmitic acids, and natural butters (also called oils) thathave substantial stearic acid content, such as mango kernel, kokum,shea, cocoa, sal, and illipe. Others may be chosen from the groupcomprising FFAs and monoglycerides comprising stearic acid in thecombined dose of about 50 mg to about 20 g stearic acid, diglyceridescomprising stearic acid in the range of about 100 mg to about 20 g,triglycerides comprising stearic acid in the range of about 2 g to about40 g, and sodium and potassium stearates comprising stearic acid in therange of about 2 g to 40 g. Still others comprise sulforaphane orsulforaphane precursors and derivatives in the range of about 5 mg toabout 5 g.

A preferred fission promoter is NAM+R. Alternatives comprise one or moreof the group that includes nicotinamide, nicotinic acid, nicotinamideriboside, nicotinamide mononucleotide, oxidized nicotinamide adeninedinucleotide, and apigenin, with a combined dose of about 80 mg to about8 g. Ribose may be added in amounts preferably between 80 mg to about 20g.

In a trial, Mito1 and Mito2 were administered on alternate days asunitary doses, with impressive results as shown below in Table 2, and inFIG. 7 . Examples of supplement cocktails are listed below as Mito1 toMito3.

Turning again to the drawings, FIG. 6 is a flowchart of mitochondrialmtDNA cleanup showing the sequence of steps producing a lower averagegenetic and epigenetic (methylation) damage. A cellular population ofmtDNA having an average methylation 616 is cleaned up in the combinedstep designated by dashed box 620. Cleanup 620 comprises sub-steps 610,612, and 614. At sub-step 610, mitochondrial switch 1 (MS1) is set tofusion. At sub-step 612, endogenous demethylase is stimulated. This mayoccur before, during, or after sub-step 610, and may comprisealpha-ketoglutarate or a pharmaceutically acceptable derivative from thenonlimiting group previously noted. At sub-step 614, biogenesis isstimulated. This will temporarily increase the mitochondrial mass, whilehomeostatic mechanisms will then lower it again by mitophagy.Mitochondrial mass and average methylation can be lowered more quicklyby repeating step 620 with MS1 in sub-step 610 set to fission. Toachieve the most rapid removal of mitochondrial damage, step 620 isrepeated while necessarily varying only MS1 of sub-step 610 betweenfusion and fission. By using rapidly absorbed promoters, step 620 cancomprise a single, unitary dose. The period between fission and fusiondoses is preferably at least 8 hours, more preferably at least 12 hours,and most preferably at least 24 hours.

Cycling the procedure in FIG. 6 with MS1 switched between fusion andfission will quickly restore ATP output, using the unitary doses Mito1and Mito2 described in the exemplary supplement cocktails listed below.The process can begin with either Mito1 or Mito2, while Mito3 can beused as a maintenance dose, or used alone.

Example Mito1 (Fission)

mtDNA Cleanup Cocktail:

-   -   NAM+R, 1 g of each    -   AKG, 1 g    -   PQQ, 20 mg

Example Mito2 (Fusion)

mtDNA Cleanup Cocktail:

-   -   GMS, 1 g    -   AKG, 1 g    -   PQQ, 20 mg

Example Mito3

mtDNA Maintenance:

-   -   AKG, 1 g    -   PQQ, 20 mg

In the above nutritional examples, cleanup cocktails can be administeredin capsules, caplets or tablets, as a paste or powder, by dissolving ordispersing in fruit juice or flavored water, or by any other methodfound satisfactory by the subject.

Mitochondrial Trial Results

This trial examined the effects of using a cyclic regime for removingmethylation marks from mtDNA. Example cocktails Mito1 and Mito2 werealternated on a substantially day-to-day basis, as shown in Table 2.

TABLE 2 Day Reps Δ Δ % Regime 1-3 16 — — Baseline 4 12 — — Mito1 5 21 942.9 Mito2 6 13 — — Mito1 7 21 8 38.1 Mito2 8 22 — — — 9 23 — — Mito2 1018 — — Mito1 11 23 5 21.7 Mito2 12 17 — — Mito1 13 22 5 22.7 Mito2 14 19— — Mito1 15 22 3 13.6 Mito2 16 22 — — Mito1 17 22 0 0.0 Mito2 18-33 220 — —

The 69 year-old subject counted the number of reps to exhaustion fortwenty-pound dumbbell curls in his non-dominant hand, approximately fivehours after taking the oral composition of either composition Mito1(fission) or Mito2 (fusion). Clearly, Mito2 initially increased repsover baseline while Mito1 decreased them. The difference between thereps of Mito2 and the previous day's Mito1 are shown under the headingΔ, while the A % column shows A divided by that day's Mito2 result as apercentage. It is expected that this percentage reflects the magnitudeof damage to mitochondria. Damage is primarily a combination ofmutations that affect one or more mtDNA genes, sending ΔΨm to zeroduring fission, and mtDNA methylation that reduces ΔΨm during fission,but not to zero. If all mitochondria were genetically damaged, it wasexpected Δ % would be 100%. If there were no damage, either genetic orepigenetic, it was expected Δ % would be 0%, while with only methylationdamage, Δ % would be intermediate.

Damage due to mutations can be cleared by natural quality control viaPINK1/Parkin by alternating fission with fusion, but the reduction ofΔΨm due to methylation cannot be cured in this way. It was hypothesizedthat by promoting biogenesis during fission, low ΔΨm of mtDNA loopscould be further reduced to zero and the loops removed by PINK1/Parkin.And even if some loops were not removed, their methylation level wouldbe reduced by TET enzymes, thus lowering Δ % incrementally.

The results tabulated in Table 2 are shown graphically in FIG. 7 . Curve702 shows the baseline number of reps to failure prior to treatment. Itis expected that mitochondria were initially in an intermediate, dynamicstate between fission and fusion, which is the normal state when fissionor fusion is not forced. Curve 704 shows the reps to failure under aforced fission condition using cocktail Mito1, and likewise curve 706shows the reps to failure under a forced fusion condition using cocktailMito2. Fusion curve 706 is nearly flat. It is expected that ATP outputin the fusion state is nearly maximal due to sharing of enzymes betweenmtDNA loops, whereas the ATP output in the fission state is much reducedin the absence of sharing. With increasing cycles of fission and fusion,the number of defective mtDNA loops was substantially reduced and thelevel of methylation was decreased, resulting in curve 704 rising andfinally intersecting with curve 706. Dashed curve 708 shows the percentdifference between the fusion and fission states, going from 43%initially to 0%—a dramatic improvement after just two weeks. This ismuch faster than with fission and fusion alone, which would not havesubstantially eliminated methylation and therefore not taken Δ % tozero.

Mito1 was alternated with Mito2 eleven times, but the number requiredwill be sensitive to the initial level of damage. After point 720, themaximal output was maintained without forcing fusion, and the overallimprovement over baseline endurance was 37.5% without any additionalfusion supplements. Long term fusion is not desirable as it disablescellular quality control that requires fission and will result in thebuild-up of mutations. In any case, the accumulation of damage can beexpected to occur once again, therefore maintenance regime MITO3 may beused. MITO3 combines promoters of mitochondrial biogenesis anddemethylase, preferably in a unit dose, allowing the natural cycling ofmitochondrial morphology to supply the fission and fusion. Mito3 mayalso be used as an initial treatment, although with substantially slowerand perhaps incomplete results.

It is herein hypothesized that mtDNA methylation damage builds upthroughout life, playing a major role in age-related obesity andhypertension, and contributing to many other diseases of aging. Byalternating cocktails Mito1 and Mito2, it was hypothesized that Δ %should drop rapidly if mitochondrial damage from both major sources werereduced, which indeed occurred during this trial as shown. In additionto gains in endurance, the subject noted a reduction of hunger and apartial resolving of his long standing hypertension. He was able to cuthis hypertension medication by half, and found losing weight much easierthan before.

Alzheimer's Treatment

Background

In 2015, Kim et al. (PMID: 26646366) showed that Good's buffer4-(2-Hydroxyethyl)-1-piperazinepropanesulfonic acid (HEPPS) producesdisaggregation of amyloid-β (Aβ) plaques in mice genetically modified tooverexpress Aβ. Cognitive ability was restored. In humans, AD alsoinvolves hyperphosphorylated tau (p-tau) which is sticky and combinesextraneuronally with Aβ in plaques and forms intraneuronalneurofibrillary tangles. Aβ is upstream of p-tau in the pathogenesis ofAD according to Bloom in 2014 (PMID: 24493463), and according to Jin etal. in 2011 (PMID: 21421841), Aβ directly leads to hyperphosphorylationof tau. But regardless of etiology, both must be addressed. In 2013 Liuet al., (PMID: 23273573) showed that nicotinamide reduced both Aβ andp-tau in genetically modified mice. Nicotinamide, however, is not knownto be sufficient in humans.

Taurine is found in large amounts in the brain and in energy drinks. In2014, Kim et al. (PMID: 25502280) found that taurine can inhibitAβ-related damage in genetically modified mice and recover cognitiveability.

In 2011, Jazwa et al. (PMID: 21254817) showed that sulforaphane crossedthe BBB of mice after intraperitoneal injection, with activity reachinga maximum in 15 minutes and lasting approximately sixty minutes.

Oleuropein aglycone is the major phenolic found in extra virgin oliveoil. In August 2013, Grossi et al. (PMID: 23951225) found thatoleuropein aglycone protected neurons from Aß-induced cytotoxicity intransgenic mice. Hydroxytyrosol is a metabolite of oleuropein aglyconeand is known to provide comparable neuroprotection to oleuropeinaglycone in mice. In 2018, Feng et al. (PMID: 29869390) showed thatdihydromyricetin inhibits microglial activation and neuroinflammation inAD mice.

Levodopa (L-Dopa) is a factor in the release of neurotrophic factorsbeneficial in neurodegenerative diseases and for the protection of theretina from macular degeneration, which is considered herein as yetanother disease of aging. In February of 2022, Kasahara et al. (PMID:35257172) reported that L-Dopa is a promoter of neurogenesis, evenwithout conversion to dopamine.

Serotonin reuptake inhibitors are believed to work at least in part bystimulating neurogenesis, particularly in the hippocampus. An increasein hippocampal body volume has been detected by MRI in patients givenantidepressants. However, this may take as long as three years, asdiscussed by Malykhin et al. (PMID: 20731966). In quite a few cases,antidepressants lose effectiveness, resulting in what is calledbreakthrough depression. Herein it is contended that stimulatingneurogenesis without regard to mitochondrial morphology can result in SCdepletion in the brain.

Summary of the Invention as Applied to the Brain

The central cause of AD is believed to derive from the buildup of Aβrich plaques and the inflammation that results. But even when plaquesare removed, memory problems can persist, and it was found herein thatthese can be ameliorated by the endogenous stimulation of neural SCs. Aneffective regime for AD treatment can be divided into four regimens: thedisaggregation of plaques, detoxification of plaque debris, restorationof memory and cognitive functions by refilling neural stem cell poolsdamaged by Aβ toxicity and resulting inflammation, and cleanup ofaberrant mtDNA in mitochondria. These four regimens are summarizedbelow:

1. Plaques are disaggregated by administration of the Good's bufferHEPPS, and nicotinamide. These may be administered together orseparately. They may be administered on different days.

2. Neurons are protected from disaggregated plaques by mitochondrialfusion and appropriate anti-oxidants. The BBB excludes most saturatedand mono-unsaturated fatty acids (such as palmitic, oleic, and stearicacids). Thus, preferred fusion agents are those that can penetrate theBBB. A non-limiting list includes myricetin, dihydromyricetin and otherderivatives and analogs of myricetin; sulforaphane and/or derivates andsources thereof; and mitochondrial fusion promoter M1. These may be usedalone or in combination to take advantage of varying half-lives and thepotentially differential effects on various SC types, and in specific SCniches. It has been found in trials that an SC proliferation regimeusing dihydromyricetin and/or sulforaphane with stearic acid increasesexercise performance and general energy more than stearic acid alone,suggestive of the stimulation of SCs outside the brain not stimulated byC60, or stimulated insufficiently.

3. Stem cell pools are refilled by modifying neural mitochondrialmorphology with a fusion agent capable of crossing the blood brainbarrier (BBB), and administering a promoter of neural SCs. These includeserotonin promoters, L-Dopa, and the fullerene C60.

4. Aberrant mtDNA may be removed by cycling fusion/biogenesis withfission/biogenesis as described in the Mitochondrial Age Reversalsection above.

These four regimens may be used separately, cyclically, or in a combinedfashion.

As disaggregated Aβ and p-tau released into the cerebrospinal fluid(CSF) will continue to be toxic and potentially redeposit, supplementsknown to be antioxidants capable of countering this toxicity arecombined with a disaggregator to create a therapeutic cocktail. Thevolume of CSF is replaced at intervals of approximately six hours, andthis can be taken as a half-life due to mixing by arterial pulsations.Thus the ideal antioxidants are able to penetrate the BBB anddemonstrate a half-life about equal to or greater than the half-life ofCFS, or alternatively, the antioxidants are dosed at intervals and/or intime delay formulations. Useful antioxidants comprise the amino acidtaurine (which like HEPPS is a sulfonic acid), the olive oil polyphenolsoleuropein aglycone and hydroxytyrosol, the flavonoid dihydromyricetin,myricetin and derivatives thereof, vitamin C, and the primary cellularantioxidant, glutathione. Dihydromyricetin and derivatives thereof servea dual purpose as a fusion agent and antioxidant. And while itsbiological half-life is less than the half-life of CFS, it can beprepared in a slow release formulation that is as much as 12 hours, oreven longer. Sulforaphane or derivatives (eg, sulforaphaneglucosinolate) also have a dual action as fusion agents andantioxidants, further protecting against toxic Aβ released by thedisaggregator. Carnosine is another common supplement useful here, whichis known to suppress intraneuronal accumulation of Aβ, while also actingas an antioxidant and anti-glycative agent.

Neural stem cells (NSCs) are proliferated by oral administration ofserotonin promoters along with mitochondrial fusion promoters. Serotoninpromoters comprise serotonin sources and/or serotonin reuptakeinhibitors (SRIs). Serotonin sources include tryptophane derivativessuch as 5-HTP. SRIs include SSRIs (selective serotonin reuptakeinhibitors), ASRIs (allosteric serotonin inhibitors), and Tricyclicantidepressants (TCAs). The latter are less selective than SSRIs orASRIs. Another SC promoter is the amino acid levodopa (L-Dopa), which isa precursor of monoamine neurotransmitters such as dopamine,norepinephrine and epinephrine. While dopamine can inhibit stem cellproliferation in the brain, L-Dopa can promote their activity, evenwithout conversion to dopamine. Another SC promoter is the fullereneC60, hypothesized herein to act via mitochondrial UCP2 pore blocking.Whatever its actual mechanism of action, it promotes the division ofstem cells, and can be used with antidepressant promoters of SCproliferation. All of the above promoters penetrate the BBB, and all canbe used together or separately, along with mitochondria fusion, andoptionally with a demethylase promoter and/or telomerase promoter.

The following nutritional supplement cocktails—which evolved over timeto include sulforaphane, but were otherwise substantially as shownhere—were used for two individuals, one male and one female.

EXAMPLES OF ALZHEIMER'S TREATMENT COCKTAILS Example A1

Plaque Cocktail, Part a (Dose):

-   -   Taurine (10 g)    -   HEPPS (1 g)    -   Nicotinamide (500 mg)    -   Carnosine (3 g)

Plaque Cocktail, Part B (Dose):

-   -   Sulforaphane glucosinolate (50 mg)    -   Oleuropein (100 mg)    -   Hydroxytyrosol (25 mg)    -   Dihydromyricetin (350 mg)    -   Vitamin C (1 g)    -   Glutathione, liposomal or phytosomal (500 mg)

Dosages were based on the male at about 85 kg and were reduced for thelower weight of the female. Cocktail A was dosed in fruit juice andCocktail B in tablets and capsules. They were taken together, withCocktail B repeated after four hours.

Carnosine should be dosed at one gram or more to saturate the digestiveenzyme carnosinase that destroys it, and HEPPS can be adjusted down todoses of 250 mg or less when first used, as the surge of released Aβfrom loosely consolidated plaques can cause cognitive problems.

The first individual was male, 65 years old and had two APOE e4 genes.He had approximately 50 Aß treatments over 3 months. The second wasfemale, 75 years old and has one APOE e4 gene, and has had some 20 Aßtreatments over six months. Both were experiencing cognitive deficitsthat were substantially reversed by the treatments, however, some memoryproblems still persisted.

Subsequent trials with serotonin reuptake inhibitors and with serotoninpromoters and mitochondrial fusion promoters produced significantfurther improvement in memory and cognitive abilities, and a rapidimprovement in mood. Physical energy was also improved after C60treatments combined with SRIs and/or L-Dopa, which suggests that thecombination causes proliferation in at least some stem cells notstimulated by C60/fusion, even outside the brain. C60 and fusionpromoters may therefore be advantageously used together with serotoninpromoters and L-Dopa.

In some embodiments, plaque disaggregation is synergistically combinedwith the stem cell and mitochondrial treatments discussed above, toprovide a comprehensive improvement in health and function. As with themitochondrial and SC treatments, fusion may be alternated with fissionfor removing plaques. In cycling, disaggregation of Aβ is combined withmitochondrial fusion and p-tau dephosphorylation combined withmitochondrial fission.

Example A2

Fusion Step:

To Promote the Proliferation of Neural Stem Cells:

-   -   A fusion promoter capable of crossing the blood brain barrier        (BBB). Examples are myricetin, dihydromyricetin, and other        derivatives and analogs of myricetin;    -   sulforaphane and/or derivatives thereof; and mitochondrial        fusion promoter M1.

To Proliferate Neural SCs:

-   -   A stem cell promoter capable of crossing the BBB. Examples are        serotonin promoters, L-Dopa, and the fullerene C60.

To Maximize the Epigenetic Age Reduction:

-   -   A promoter of demethylase.

For SC Nutrition:

-   -   Amino acids and derivatives thereof such as methionine,        2-hydroxy-4-(methylthio)-butanoic acid (HMB), and/or        S-adenosyl-L-methionine (SAM-e), lysine, threonine, and        glutamine.

To Increase mtDNA Copies:

-   -   A promoter of mitochondrial biogenesis. Preferred examples are        PQQ, derivatives and salts thereof.

To Remove Plaque:

-   -   A plaque disaggregator. A preferred example is HEPPS.

To Protect the Brain from Disaggregated Products:

-   -   An antioxidant capable of crossing the BBB and having a        half-life similar to or longer than the rate of CSF turnover.        Flavonoids such as dihydromyricetin may do double duty as an        antioxidant and fusion promoter. Other examples of useful        antioxidants are lutein, zeaxanthin, and the zeaxanthin        metabolite astaxanthin. These all have half-lives longer than        the half-life of CSF. Derivatives thereof may also be used.

To Maximize the Epigenetic Age Reduction:

-   -   A demethylase promoter. Examples are alpha-ketoglutarate and        sources thereof. Typical demethylase promoters include        alpha-ketoglutarate, alpha-ketoglutaric acid, ammonium        alpha-ketoglutarate, arginine alpha-ketoglutarate, calcium        alpha-ketoglutarate, creatine alpha-ketoglutarate, glutamine        alpha-ketoglutarate, leucine alpha-ketoglutarate, lithium        alpha-ketoglutarate, magnesium alpha-ketoglutarate, ornithine        alpha-ketoglutarate, potassium alpha-ketoglutarate, sodium        alpha-ketoglutarate, and taurine alpha-ketoglutarate.

And to Restore SC Telomeres:

-   -   A telomerase promoter. Examples of telomerase promoters are        astragalus, the triterpenoid cycloastragenol found in        astragalus, and other astragalosides found therein such as        astragaloside IV.        Fission Step:

To Promote the Differentiation of Stem Cells and the Reduction of p-Tau:

-   -   Nicotinamide, niacin, and sources of nicotinamide such as        nicotinamide riboside.

To Maximize the Epigenetic Age Reduction:

-   -   A demethylase promoter. Examples are alpha-ketoglutarate and        sources thereof, as given above.

For SC Nutrition:

-   -   Amino acids and derivatives thereof such as methionine,        2-hydroxy-4-(methylthio)-butanoic acid (HMB), and/or        S-adenosyl-L-methionine (SAM-e), lysine, threonine, and        glutamine.

To Expose Defective mtDNA to PINK1/Parkin Quality Control,

-   -   A mitochondrial biogenesis promoter. Preferred examples are PQQ        and derivatives and salts thereof.

And to Protect Against Plaque Toxicity:

-   -   One or more antioxidants such as taurine, polyphenols,        flavonoids, and carotenoids. Particularly desirable are those        with half-lives longer than the half-life of the CSF.

For the fission step, the fission promoter and PQQ cooperate to removemtDNA degraded by methylation, as discussed previously under theMitochondrial Age Reversal section. Fusion and fission steps can bealternated on a 12 hour basis, but more preferable on a daily basis, andcan also be alternated on a weekly or longer basis. One or moremitochondrial fusion treatments may be performed back to back, andsimilarly with mitochondrial fission treatments. More than one promoterof each type may be used to achieve synergistic effects.

Typical fusion promoters include dihydromyricetin and otherderivatives/analogs of myricetin; sulforaphane and/or sources thereof;and mitochondrial fusion promoter M1(1-(5-Chloro-2-hydroxyphenyl)-ethanone 2-(2,4,6-trichlorophenyl)hydrazone).

Typical fission promoters include nicotinamide, nicotinic acid,nicotinamide riboside, nicotinamide mononucleotide, oxidizednicotinamide adenine dinucleotide, and apigenin. Nicotinamide ispreferred. Ribose may optionally be used with the fission promoters,especially nicotinamide.

Typical biogenesis promoters include PQQ, its isomers, derivatives, andsalts.

SC promoters include the fullerene C60 and SRIs (serotonin reuptakeinhibitors). SRIs include SSRIs (selective serotonin reuptakeinhibitors) such as Citalopram, Escitalopram, Fluoxetine, Paroxetine,and Sertraline, as well as ASRIs (allosteric serotonin inhibitors).Escitalopram is sometimes classified as both an ASRI and SSRI. Herein,SRIs also include the tricyclic antidepressants (TCAs) that inhibitserotonin nonspecifically. Examples of this class include Amitriptyline,Amoxapine, Desipramine, Doxepin, Imipramine, Nortriptyline,Protriptyline, and Trimipramine. The SSRIs act in similar ways, butgiven that the half-lives and side-effects vary by individual, two ormore may be usefully combined for greater effectiveness, and to reduceputative side effects. SSRIs, ASRIs, and tricyclics are all believed tostimulate neural stem cells via serotonin-dependent Wnt signaling.However, without mitochondrial fusion, neural SC pools/niches can bedepleted. This common result, referred to as tachyphylaxis, can bepersistent and effect all drugs of the antidepressant class. Themechanism is debated in the medical field and ascribed to a laundrylists of causes, but is herein hypothesized to be associated at least insome cases due stem cell depletion as a result of uncontrolledmitochondrial morphology, and in particular, an absence of mitochondrialfusion. This is herein considered a syndrome of aging whereby providinga fusion promoter with a serotonin reuptake inhibitor will reduce theincidence of tachyphylaxis and other deleterious drug effects, such astardive dyskinesia. The latter side-effect has the earmarks of neuronalloss/SC depletion. Endogenous promotion of SCs is clearly a superiortreatment to cultivating SCs and TACs in a laboratory and injecting theminto the brain, as has been attempted by others.

A list of commercial SRIs usable as SC promoters without regard to type:Amitriptyline, Citalopram, Clomipramine, Desmethylcitalopram,Desmethylsertraline, Escitalopram, Femoxetine, Fluoxetine, Fluvoxamine,Imipramine, Levomilnacipran, Norfluoxetine, Paroxetine, Sertraline,Venlafaxine, Vilazodone, Vortioxetine, and Zimelidine. The standardrecommended prescription dose ranges may be used. Although much work hasbeen done to extend the half-lives of SSRIs, those with shorterhalf-lives are preferred herein so that SCs can be stimulated primarilyduring mitochondrial fusion.

In some embodiments, the serotonin precursor 5-hydroxytryptophan (5-HTP)is the SC promoter, with or without an SRI. Preferred dosage of 5-HTPrange from 0.02-100 mg/kg, preferably about 0.1-20 mg/kg, and mostpreferably 0.2-10 mg/kg.

In some embodiments, taurine and polyphenols such as tyrosol,hydroxytyrosol, oleuropein, oleocanthal, and oleuropein aglycone areused to protect the brain against Aβ toxicity. These bind todisaggregated Aβ and render it less toxic. Another anti-oxidant founduseful is astaxanthin, which crosses the BBB and has a reportedhalf-life of around 9 hours.

For the fusion step of Example A2, the SC promoters and mitochondrialfusion promoters are necessary for proliferating SCs, while HEPPS isnecessary for removing plaque. The flavonoid dihydromyricetin is thepreferred fusion promoter due to low cost, relatively fast action, andantioxidant properties. The SC promoter C60 is known to be nontoxic andalso has excellent anti-oxidant properties. C60, astaxanthin, anddihydromyricetin and derivatives thereof serve as anti-oxidants forprotecting the brain from toxic products of disaggregated plaques.Plaque debris are slowly removed as the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) isreplaced with a half-life of about six hours. Without fusion and/orsufficient antioxidants, toxic effects can occur from disaggregatedplaques. In Example A3, fusion and SC promoters are combined forproliferation of neural SCs.

Example A3

To Establish a State of Fusion in the Brain of a Subject:

-   -   A fusion promoter capable of crossing the blood brain barrier        (BBB), comprising at least one of the group consisting of:        fusion promoter M1; myricetin, dihydromyricetin and derivatives        and analogues of myricetin; and sulforaphane and derivatives        thereof.

To Proliferate Stem Cells:

-   -   A stem cell promoter comprising at least one serotonin precursor        and/or at least one serotonin reuptake inhibitor, and        optionally, the fullerene C60 dissolved in a biocompatible        fluid.

In some embodiments, the serotonin precursor 5-hydroxytryptophan (5-HTP)is administered with a serotonin (5-HT) reuptake inhibitor, allowing thedose of inhibitors to be reduced. In some embodiments, 5-HTP is usedwithout an inhibitor. In some embodiments, tryptophan and othertryptophan derivatives are used to increase serotonin in the brain of asubject. 5-HTP is preferred.

In some embodiments, the amino acid L-Dopa is administered with amitochondrial fusion promoter to stimulate the proliferation of SCs. Insome embodiments it is used with C60 and/or with a demethylase promoter.In some embodiments it is used with glutamine. A trial of L-Dopa withC60 and mitochondrial fusion eliminated tremors in the one subject thathad them, suggesting its value in treating Parkinson's disease.Treatment with L-Dopa may be combined with 5-HTP and/or SRIs for a fullspectrum effect.

In some embodiments, all components of the fusion step are administeredtogether. In some embodiments, the stem cell promoter(s) are supplied insuch a way as to delay their absorption for a few minutes to an hour ormore, to ensure than a state of mitochondrial fusion is fully achieved.This absorption delay may be achieved by administering fusionpromoter(s) before the SC promoter(s) after a delay of minutes to anhour or more, or by supplying the SC promoters with enteric coatings ormicroencapsulation or the like. Such methods of delaying absorption arewell known in the art.

Example A4

To Establish a State of Fusion in the Brain of a Subject:

-   -   A fusion promoter capable of crossing the blood brain barrier        (BBB).

To Proliferate Stem Cells:

-   -   A stem cell promoter comprising one or more of the group        consisting of: L-Dopa, 5-HTP, SRIs and/or TCAs, and the        fullerene C60 dissolved in a biocompatible fluid.

To Maximize the Epigenetic Age Reduction:

-   -   A promoter of demethylase.

And Optionally, to Restore SC Telomeres:

-   -   A telomerase promoter.

In some embodiments, the fusion promoter capable of crossing the BBBcomprise one or more of the group consisting of: fusion promoter M1;myricetin, dihydromyricetin and derivatives and analogues of myricetin;and sulforaphane and derivatives thereof. In some embodiments, thefusion promoter comprises more than one fusion promoter, thus producingbroader spectrum effects over various tissues. In some embodiments afusion promoter capable of crossing the BBB is combined with one notcapable of crossing the BBB.

In some embodiments, mitochondria fusion and serotonin and/or L-Dopapromotion of SCs are used to ameliorate neuronal cell loss in diseaseslike Alzheimer's and Parkinson's, and in some embodiments to ameliorateneuronal SC loss due to ordinary aging.

In some embodiments, the SC promoter comprises both L-Dopa and aserotonin promoter, wherein the serotonin promoter comprises an SRIand/or 5-HTP.

In some embodiments, amino acid nutrition is used with the treatment.Nutrition may comprise lysine and methionine, and optionally, threonineand glutamine.

In some embodiments, SAM-e is included as a methyl group source.

In some embodiments, a demethylase promoter is used. Nonlimitingexamples include alpha-ketoglutarate, alpha-ketoglutaric acid, ammoniumalpha-ketoglutarate, arginine alpha-ketoglutarate, calciumalpha-ketoglutarate, creatine alpha-ketoglutarate, glutaminealpha-ketoglutarate, leucine alpha-ketoglutarate, lithiumalpha-ketoglutarate, magnesium alpha-ketoglutarate, ornithinealpha-ketoglutarate, potassium alpha-ketoglutarate, sodiumalpha-ketoglutarate, and taurine alpha-ketoglutarate. Demethylaseactivity depends in part on the availability of alpha-ketoglutarate,which is an intermediate in the Krebs cycle. The derivatives may be usedat dosages twice that of alpha-ketoglutarate, due to higher molecularweight and slower rates of absorption.

In some embodiments, telomerase promoters are used. This is optional inall of the above regimes involving SC promoters. Telomerase promotersare a double edged sword, as they can postpone senescence and apoptosisof progenitor intermediates such as TACs, blocking the replacement ofsenescent cells and thereby increasing epigenetic age. Thus they arepreferably used at low dosages and/or intermittently. For example, onceevery other treatment to once every six months. Examples of telomerasepromoters are astragalus, the triterpenoid cycloastragenol found inastragalus, and other astragalosides found therein such as astragalosideIV. Resveratrol is another telomerase promoter that may be used, but isless preferred due to its pleiotropic effects. Occasional use oftelomerase promoters can be useful as even the telomeres of stem cellsare known to shorten with time, though more slowly than in other cellsthat do not naturally produce telomerase.

In some embodiments, disaggregation is decoupled from SC proliferation.This is useful especially in the early stages of treatment ofAlzheimer's, when the plaque burden is large, and the risk of injury toproliferating neural SCs by disaggregated plaque is the greatest.

Example A5

Disaggregation Decoupled from mtDNA Cleanup and SC Proliferation:

To Establish a State of Fusion in the Brain of a Subject:

-   -   A fusion promoter capable of crossing the blood brain barrier        (BBB).

To Disaggregate Plaques:

-   -   HEPPS, and optionally, a nicotinamide source.

To Protect Against Toxicity:

-   -   An antioxidant capable of crossing the BBB and preferably having        a half-life similar to or longer than the rate of CSF turnover        (about 6 hours).

In some embodiments, the treatment comprises a mitochondrial fusionpromoter unable to penetrate the BBB in addition to one that canpenetrate the BBB. In some embodiments, more than one SC promoter may beused.

Example A6

A Regime with Multiple Promoters:

-   -   Glycerol monostearate (GMS), 2 g    -   Dihydromyricetin, 3 g    -   Sulforaphane glucosinolate, 50 mg    -   Escitalopram, 3 mg    -   Fluoxetine, 3 mg    -   5-HTP, 100 mg    -   L-Dopa, 5 mg    -   AKG, 1 g    -   AAKG, 1 g    -   Lysine, 3 g    -   Methionine, 1 g    -   Threonine, 3 g    -   Glutamine, 2 g    -   SAM-e, 200 mg    -   C60, 3 mg    -   Astaxanthin, 12 mg    -   Lutein, 50 mg    -   Zeaxanthin, 10 mg    -   HEPPS, 100 mg    -   Nicotinamide, 50 mg    -   Astragalus powder, 250 mg    -   Lecithin, 2 g

A trial of example A6 produced negligible side effects, and thesubjective effects were found to be similar to or better than trialswith 5-HTP and L-Dopa with no other serotonin promoters. In the trial,components were administered in orange juice with lecithin used as anemulsifying agent. C60 was pre-dissolved in MCT oil at a concentrationof about 0.5 mg/ml.

In addition to biasing SCs to proliferation, mitochondrial fusionprotects cells by reducing internally generated ROS, and a fusionpromoter can also serve directly as an antioxidant. The flavonoiddihydromyricetin is an example of a fusion promoter/antioxidant, but hasa relatively short half-life. This is sufficient for SC promotion, butless than ideal for protecting against the toxicity of disaggregatedplaque particles. However, sustained or extended/controlled releaseformulations of dihydromyricetin (and other short term fusion agents)can increase the half-life substantially past the half-life of the CSF.Such formulations are well known in the art, and often use a matrix ofbiodegradable polymers or waxes and the like in which the drug isembedded. Another exemplary antioxidant useful here is the carotenoidastaxanthin, with a half-life of 9 hours or more. Lutein and zeaxanthinhave even longer half-lives and penetrate the BBB.

In some embodiments, neurological diseases and syndromes of agingcomprise Alzheimer's, Parkinson's, macular degeneration, frailty,depression, and impairment of memory and/or cognitive ability,individually or in combination.

In some embodiments, nicotinamide riboside may advantageously be usedinstead of nicotinamide, as nicotinamide riboside is absorbed only aftera delay of several hours, and thus will not interfere with the desiredstate of fusion until SCs are committed to proliferation.

In some embodiments, all components are supplied in kit form suitablefor self-administration. In some embodiments, the treatments aregraduated, with treatment components first biased to removal of plaque,then to SC proliferation and/or removal of dysfunctional mitochondria.

Preferred Doses

The following are therapeutically effective doses in mg/kg of anorganism for the above cocktails and regimes. Doses are based on an 80kg subject.

-   5-HTP—0.02-100 mg/kg, preferably about 0.1 to 20 mg/kg, and most    preferably 0.2 to 10 mg/kg-   ALA—0.5 to 100 mg/kg, preferably 1 to 50 mg/kg, and most preferably    2 to 30 mg/kg-   AKG—0.5 to 1000 mg/kg, preferably 1 to 500 mg/kg, and most    preferably 2 to 200 mg/kg-   Apigenin—1 to 100 mg/kg, preferably 2 to 75 mg/kg, and most    preferably 5 to 50 mg/kg-   Astragaloside IV—0.001 to 1 mg/kg, preferably 0.005 to 0.5 mg/kg,    and most preferably 0.01 to 0.1 mg/kg-   Astaxanthin—0.01 to 10 mg/kg, preferably 0.05 to 5 mg/kg, and most    preferably 0.02 to 2 mg/kg-   Azithromycin—0.5 to 30 mg/kg, preferably 1 to 20 mg/kg, and most    preferably 2 to 10 mg/kg-   β-GPA—1 to 200 mg/kg, preferably 2 to 50 mg/kg, and most preferably    5 to 20 mg/kg-   C60—0.001 to 1 mg/kg, preferably 0.005 to 0.1 mg/kg, and most    preferably 0.01 to 0.5 mg/kg-   GMS—1 to 250 mg/kg, preferably 5 to 100 mg/kg, and most preferably    10 to 30 mg/kg-   Curcumin—1 to 250 mg/kg, preferably 5 to 100 mg/kg, and most    preferably 10 to 50 mg/kg-   Cycloastragenol—0.001 to 1 mg/kg, preferably 0.005 to 0.5 mg/kg, and    most preferably 0.01 to 0.1 mg/kg-   Dasatinib—0.1 to 4 mg/kg, preferably 0.2 to 3 mg/kg, and most    preferably 0.5 to 2 mg/kg-   Dihydromyricetin—0.2 to 500 mg/kg, preferably 0.5 to 200 mg/kg, and    most preferably 1 to 100 mg/kg-   Fisetin—1 to 500 mg/kg, preferably 2 to 200 mg/kg, and most    preferably 4 to 100 mg/kg-   Glutamine—1 to 200 mg/kg, preferably 2 to 50 mg/kg, and most    preferably 5 to 20 mg/kg-   Glutathione—1 to 200 mg/kg, preferably 2 to 50 mg/kg, and most    preferably 5 to 20 mg/kg-   GMS—0.5 to 200 mg/kg, preferably 1 to 100 mg/kg, and most preferably    2 to 50 mg/kg-   HEPPS—0.01 to 100 mg/kg, preferably 0.5 to 50 mg/kg, and most    preferably 1 to 10 mg/kg-   HMB—0.5 to 200 mg/kg, preferably 1 to 100 mg/kg, and most preferably    2 to 50 mg/kg-   L-Dopa—0.005 to 10 mg/kg, preferably 0.05 to 5 mg/kg, and most    preferably 0.02 to 1 mg/kg-   Lecithin—0.2 to 500 mg/kg, preferably 0.5 to 200 mg/kg, and most    preferably 1 to 100 mg/kg-   Leucine—5 to 500 mg/kg, preferably 10 to 100 mg/kg, and most    preferably 20 to 50 mg/kg-   Lutein—0.01 to 10 mg/kg, preferably 0.05 to 5 mg/kg, and most    preferably 0.02 to 2 mg/kg-   Lysine—5 to 500 mg/kg, preferably 10 to 100 mg/kg, and most    preferably 20 to 50 mg/kg-   M1—0.1 to 100 mg/kg, preferably 0.5 to 50 mg/kg, and most preferably    1 to 10 mg/kg-   Metathione—1 to 200 mg/kg, preferably 2 to 50 mg/kg, and most    preferably 5 to 20 mg/kg-   Methylene blue—0.01 to 20 mg/kg, preferably 0.02 to 5 mg/kg, and    most preferably 0.03 to 2 mg/kg-   Myrosinase—0.02 pg/kg to 0.02 μg/kg, preferably 1.0 pg/kg to 7    ng/kg, and most preferably 0.02 to 2 ng/kg-   Navitoclax—0.1 to 50 mg/kg, preferably 0.5 to 30 mg/kg, and most    preferably 1 to 20 mg/kg-   Nicotinic acid, nicotinamide, or combination—0.5 to 200 mg/kg,    preferably 1 to 50 mg/kg, and most preferably 2 to 40 mg/kg-   Nicotinamide riboside—0.5 to 200 mg/kg, preferably 1 to 50 mg/kg,    and most preferably 2 to 40 mg/kg-   NMN—1 to 200 mg/kg, preferably 2 to 50 mg/kg, and most preferably 5    to 20 mg/kg-   Piperlongumine—0.01 to 0.5 mg/kg, preferably 0.02 to 0.2 mg/kg, and    most preferably 0.03 to 0.1 mg/kg-   Polyphenols (tyrosol, hydroxytyrosol, oleuropein, oleocanthal, and    oleuropein aglycon, alone or in the aggregate)—1 to 100 mg/kg,    preferably 1.5 to 75 mg/kg, and most preferably 2 to 5 mg/kg-   PQQ—0.01 to 20 mg/kg, preferably 0.03 to 10 mg/kg, and most    preferably 0.05 to 5 mg/kg-   Quercetin—1 to 100 mg/kg, preferably 1.5 to 75 mg/kg, and most    preferably 2 to 5 mg/kg-   Resveratrol—0.01 to 20 mg/kg, preferably 0.05 to 10 mg/kg, and most    preferably 0.1 to 5 mg/kg-   Ribose—1 to 400 mg/kg, preferably 2 to 300 mg/kg, and most    preferably 4 to 250 mg/kg-   Roxithromycin—0.01 to 5 mg/kg, preferably 0.5 to 4 mg/kg, and most    preferably 1 to 3 mg/kg-   SAM-e—0.01 to 50 mg/kg, preferably 0.04 to 20 mg/kg, and most    preferably 0.05 to 5 mg/kg-   Sodium and potassium stearates—50 mg to 1 g/kg, preferably 75 to 750    mg/kg, and most preferably 100 to 500 mg/kg-   SRIs—0.001 to 5 mg/kg, preferably 0.01 to 2 mg/kg, and most    preferably 0.02 to 1 mg/kg-   Stearic acid (except GMS and alkali stearates)—5 to 800 mg/kg,    preferably 10 to 300 mg/kg, and most preferably 20 to 200 mg/kg-   Sulforaphane—0.1 to 20 mg/kg, preferably 0.5 to 10 mg/kg, and most    preferably 1 to 5 mg/kg-   Sulforaphane glucosinolate—0.3 to 50 mg/kg, preferably 1 to 25    mg/kg, and most preferably 3 to 15 mg/kg-   Taurine—5 mg/kg to 1 g/kg, preferably 10 to 500 mg/kg, and most    preferably 20 to 200 mg/kg-   TCAs—0.1 to 5 mg/kg, preferably 0.2 to 2 mg/kg, and most preferably    0.3 to 1 mg/kg-   Threonine—1 to 800 mg/kg, preferably 2 to 300 mg/kg, and most    preferably 5 to 200 mg/kg-   Tryptophan—1 to 100 mg/kg, preferably 2 to 75 mg/kg, and most    preferably 5 to 50 mg/kg-   Zeaxanthin—0.01 to 10 mg/kg, preferably 0.05 to 5 mg/kg, and most    preferably 0.02 to 2 mg/kg

CONCLUSION

Various aspects of neurological diseases with respect to depletion ofSCs and the buildup of plaque are addressed, and comprehensive methodsand compositions for treating Alzheimer's and other neurologicaldiseases and syndromes of aging are provided. Aging is herein seen as anextended Hayflick crisis that can be treated by a regime comprisingactivation of two mitochondrial switches to replenish stem cell pools,reducing the average epigenetic age of their resident tissues and theorganism systemically and thereby restoring more youthful function.Epigenetic age can be more rapidly decreased by administering promotersfor enzymes to remove aberrant methylation and other epigenetic marks atcritical points during treatment. Mitochondrial dysfunction can betreated by a similar regime involving cycling mitochondrial fission andfusion with mtDNA biogenesis. Alzheimer's plaques can be removed whileSC depletion is addressed with fusion promoters able to cross the BBB,co-administered with SRIs, TCAs, and L-Dopa. These methods andassociated compositions can be combined to produce a comprehensiveimprovement in health and expected longevity

The section headings used above are for organizational purposes only andare not to be construed as limiting. And although only a few exemplaryembodiments of this invention have been described in detail, thoseskilled in the art will readily appreciate that many modifications arepossible in the exemplary embodiments without materially departing fromthe novel teachings and advantages of this invention. Accordingly, allsuch modifications are intended to be included within the scope of thisinvention as defined in the following claims.

I claim:
 1. A composition for the treatment of neurological diseases andsyndromes of aging, comprising: (a) a therapeutically effective amountof a mitochondrial fusion promoter capable of crossing the blood brainbarrier (BBB); and, (b) a therapeutically effective amount of aserotonin promoter.
 2. A composition as recited in claim 1, where themitochondrial fusion promoter comprises one or more selected from thegroup consisting of dihydromyricetin, myricetin, and other derivativesand analogs of myricetin; sulforaphane and/or derivatives thereof; andmitochondrial fusion promoter M1 (1-(5-Chloro-2-hydroxyphenyl)-ethanone2-(2,4,6-trichlorophenyl)hydrazone).
 3. A composition as recited inclaim 1, wherein the serotonin promoter comprises the serotoninprecursor, 5-hydroxytryptophan (5-HTP).
 4. A composition as recited inclaim 1, wherein the serotonin promoter comprises one or more serotoninreuptake inhibitors selected from the group consisting of Amitriptyline,Citalopram, Clomipramine, Desmethylcitalopram, Desmethylsertraline,Escitalopram, Femoxetine, Fluoxetine, Fluvoxamine, Imipramine,Levomilnacipran, Norfluoxetine, Paroxetine, Sertraline, Venlafaxine,Vilazodone, Vortioxetine, Zimelidine, and derivatives and analoguesthereof.
 5. A composition as recited in claim 1, further comprising: (c)a therapeutically effective amount of fullerene C60 dissolved in abiocompatible fluid.
 6. A composition as recited in claim 5, wherein atleast a portion of the fullerene C60 comprises at least one adduct.
 7. Acomposition as recited in claim 1, further comprising: (c) atherapeutically effective amount of a demethylase promoter.
 8. Acomposition as recited in claim 1, further comprising: (c) atherapeutically effective amount of the plaque disaggregator HEPPS(3-[4-(2-Hydroxyethyl)piperazin-1-yl]propane-1-sulfonic acid).
 9. Acomposition as recited in claim 1, wherein the mitochondrial fusionpromoter is extended-release.
 10. A composition as recited in claim 1,further comprising: (c) L-Dopa.
 11. A composition for the treatment ofneurological diseases and syndromes of aging, comprising: (a) atherapeutically effective amount of mitochondrial fusion promoters,comprising at least two mitochondrial fusion promoters selected from thegroup consisting of stearic acid or sources thereof dihydromyricetin,myricetin, and other derivatives and analogs of myricetin; sulforaphaneand/or derivatives thereof; and mitochondrial fusion promoter M1(1-(5-Chloro-2-hydroxyphenyl)-ethanone2-(2,4,6-trichlorophenyl)hydrazone); wherein at least one promoter cancross the BBB, and, (b) a therapeutically effective amount of aserotonin promoter.
 12. A composition as recited in claim 11, whereinthe serotonin promoter comprises one or more serotonin reuptakeinhibitors selected from the group consisting of Amitriptyline,Citalopram, Clomipramine, Desmethylcitalopram, Desmethylsertraline,Escitalopram, Femoxetine, Fluoxetine, Fluvoxamine, Imipramine,Levomilnacipran, Norfluoxetine, Paroxetine, Sertraline, Venlafaxine,Vilazodone, Vortioxetine, Zimelidine, and derivatives and analoguesthereof.
 13. A composition as recited in claim 11, further comprising:(c) a therapeutically effective amount of fullerene C60 dissolved in abiocompatible fluid.
 14. A composition as recited in claim 13, whereinat least a portion of the fullerene C60 comprises at least one adduct.15. A composition as recited in claim 11, further comprising: (c) atherapeutically effective amount of a demethylase promoter.
 16. Acomposition as recited in claim 11, further comprising: (c) atherapeutically effective amount of the plaque disaggregator HEPPS(3-[4-(2-Hydroxyethyl)piperazin-1-yl]propane-1-sulfonic acid).
 17. Acomposition as recited in claim 11, wherein the mitochondrial fusionpromoter is extended-release.
 18. A composition as recited in claim 11,wherein the serotonin promoter comprises the serotonin precursor,5-hydroxytryptophan (5-HTP).
 19. A method for the treatment ofneurological diseases and syndromes of aging in a subject in needthereof, comprising the steps: (a) promoting mitochondrial fusion inneural mitochondria of the subject; and, (b) promoting serotonin in thebrain of the subject.
 20. A method as recited in claim 19, furthercomprising the step: (c) administering to the subject a therapeuticallyeffective amount of fullerene C60 dissolved in a biocompatible fluid.21. A method as recited in claim 19, further comprising the step: (c)promoting demethylase in the brain of the subject.
 22. A method asrecited in claim 20, further comprising the step: (d) promotingdemethylase in the brain of the subject.